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In a seminal article by Markus and Robey (1988) ICT and organisational change is labelled a vital matter in the field of IS. According to Avgerou (2001) the change studies done in the field of Information Systems, differ in terms of the change ‘content’ they address; the explanation of the ‘environment’ they study; as well as the way in which the ‘process’ of change is understood, relative to the environment within which it takes place. On the relationship between content and context, she reports that most IS studies focus on technological change, attempting to develop effective technologies and ways in which to manage and use it effectively. Such studies would focus on the environment for the sole purpose of it being a source of opportunities or constraints for the technology implementation, ignoring the unfolding of the organisational and social changes interacting with the technology implementation. Other studies focus on technology as the ‘content’ of change, and the socio-organisational conditions under which it takes place, as the ‘context’ of change, thus separating the two. A third group of IS researchers study IS as socio-technical systems and have drawn on several different theoretical and epistemological aspects of the social sciences to highlight the social effects of new technologies, incorporating ideas such as duality of technology; social constructionism; and actor network theory, to study the joint partaking of technology and human actors in forming intertwined socio-technical entities.
Selwyn (2011) points out, that in contrast to ICT implementation in organisations, technology implementation in schools is generally done in haphazard and inconsistent ways, resulting in little systematic research on ICT enabled change in schools. The few existing studies addressing the need for the understanding and management of changes resulting from new technology in schools, support Selwyn’s notion that the aim should be to try and understand “how these technologies are socially constructed, shaped and negotiated by a range of actors and interests” (Selwyn, 2010, p. 69). For example, Ng et al. (2013) propose a people-centred framework for mobile technology implementation in schools which recognises the technical and people-related aspects of such complex environments. This includes management, teachers, students, technicians and the wider community (parents, suppliers, software developers etc.). The change dynamics is caused and driven by the interpersonal relationships between these role players. Similarly, Lim (2002) acknowledges the social and technical factors involved in ICT integration in schools. He uses Activity Theory to view ICT implementation in educational environments from a sociocultural angle. Risquez and Moore (2013) focus more on selected groups within the changed environment. They argue for determining the change readiness in educational environments by considering the psychoanalytical dynamics of the teacher group. The two psychoanalytical concepts of individuation and congruence are used. Similarly, by focusing on selected aspects of the change environment, Tondeur, Van Keer, Van Braak, and Valcke (2008) established that structural (e.g. infrastructure, planning and support) and cultural (leadership, goal orientedness and innovativeness) characteristics of schools affect educational change. Related to the management of change, Ng et al. (2013) mention the importance of inclusive and communicative leadership. Lim et al. (2013) emphasise the importance of a technology policy plan setting out an agreed vision for the use of technology in the school. According to them this plan also needs to describe expectations, goals, content, professional development and evaluation. The opinions and suggestions of all stakeholders, especially of the learners and teachers, should be reflected in such a policy plan. It is clear that scholars working on change, resulting from ICT implementation in educational environments, recognise the social, technical and multi-faceted nature of such environments. Watson (2006) notes that although it is recognised that IT implementation in schools implies change, existing models or theories of change which might provide conceptual underpinnings of a systematic understanding of it, are largely ignored.