Chapter I: Digital Technologies and the Intensification of Economic and Organizational Mechanisms in Commercial Sport

John J. H. Forster, Griffith University, Australia

Chapter 1 presents an overview of the digital revolution and the role that digital technologies have played in home entertainment generally, and sport specifically. Forster examines how digital technology is transforming the mass consumption, distribution, production and organization of sport. He argues that the impact of digitisation has been evolutionary, rather than revolutionary.

Section I: Training and Participation Applications

Section Overview

Digital technologies are being used in myriad ways for sports training and participation applications. This section examines a number of examples. From the use of robotics in sport, to inertial sensors for performance enhancement and electronic gaming to facilitate participation, the chapters in this section illustrate that digital technology is the impetus to improve the experience of elite athletes, as well as casual sports participants.

The section begins with a general-purpose taxonomy of computer-augmented sports systems in Chapter 2, followed by a discussion of the use of robotics to improve results and diagnostics in sports in Chapter 3. Player tracking systems are the focus of Chapter 4, while a video-based marker-less motion capture method for capturing human motion in sport is introduced in Chapter 5. The technology for performance enhancement of a tennis player is reviewed in Chapter 6, with the discussion of inertial sensors for athlete assessment extended in Chapter 7, where golf, rowing, cricket and ski jumping are discussed. The focus shifts from training to sports participation, beginning with Chapter 8, which presents Computer Supported Collaborative Sports. Two prototypes are presented, which demonstrate how computer games and computer augmented sports can be integrated to affect the social experience of players. A further prototype for social jogging is discussed in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 contributes to the discussion concerning gaming technologies, with a look at how video games are being used by elite athletes. Chapter 11 provides an overview of fantasy sports and their consumption by sports fans. Finally, the section concludes with Chapter 12: computational and robotic pool.

Chapter II: A General-Purpose Taxonomy of Computer-Augmented Sports Systems

Sean Reilly, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Peter Barron, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Vinny Cahill, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
Kieran Moran, Dublin City University, Ireland
Mads Haahr, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland

Sport and digitisation are becoming more multi-disciplinary. Chapter 2 presents a general-purpose taxonomy of computer-augmented sports systems, and in doing so, successfully unravels the increasingly complex domain of technology-augmented sports. The authors present several examples to illustrate their taxonomy, including a system to aid judges in scoring taekwondo matches; a computer vision system that alerts lifeguards to drowning swimmers; a system that uses visual cues to determine an athlete's movements; and the Hawkeye® system, which tracks ball movement. Their taxonomy allows for any computer-augmented sports system to be classified, in terms of its key properties and characteristics.

Chapter III: Dynamics and Simulation of General Human and Humanoid Motion in Sports

Veljko Potkonjak, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Miomir Vukobratovic, Institute “M. Pupin”, Belgrade, Serbia
Kalman Babkovic, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Branislav Borovac, University of Novi Sad, Serbia

Chapter 3 relates biomechanics to robotics and presents mathematical models of human dynamics, which can be applied in sports. These models have been derived to cover the kinematics and dynamics of virtually any motion of a human or a humanoid robot, thereby allowing for the calculation of characteristics that could not previously be measured. The authors discuss the use of robotics to improve results and diagnostics in sports, including enhanced human safety, performance and development.

Chapter IV: Technologies for Monitoring Human Player Activity Within a Competition

Brendan Burkett, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia

Chapter 4 presents an overview of player tracking systems. These systems facilitate the monitoring of human player activity within competition. Compared to manual systems, player tracking technologies benefit players and coaches, offering the key advantages of reduced time and expense, and improved sporting performance. Burkett also highlights that these systems satisfy the demand from media, referees and spectators to know what is happening in a game.

Chapter V: Video-based Motion Capture for Measuring Human Movement

Chee Kwang Quah, Republic Polytechnic, Singapore
Michael Koh, Republic Polytechnic, Singapore
Alex Ong, Republic Polytechnic, Singapore
Hock Soon Seah, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Andre Gagalowicz, INRIA, Le Chesnay, France

Chapter 5 presents a video-based marker-less motion capture method for capturing human motion in sport. While many technologies exist that capture the human motion, the motion capture technique has to yield accurate and reliable quantitative information when it comes to human biomechanical applications, particularly in real sports environments. The authors review the challenges associated with current technologies and methods, and explain how these are addressed with their system.

Chapter VI: Technology to Monitor and Enhance the Performance of a Tennis Player

Amin Ahmadi, Griffith University, Australia
David D. Rowlands, Griffith University, Australia
Daniel A. James, Griffith University, Australia

Chapter 6 looks at how technology can be used to improve the performance of a tennis player. The authors discuss the biomechanics of the various strokes, with particular attention paid to the serve. They introduce the major tools to monitor and analyze the tennis swing, including high speed digital cameras, marker-based optical systems, and inertial sensors.

Chapter VII: Quantitative Assessment of Physical Activity Using Inertial Sensors

Daniel A. James, Griffith University, Australia
Andrew Busch, Griffith University, Australia
Yuji Ohgi, Keio University, Japan

Traditionally, clinical testing for performance analysis and enhancement of athletes has been conducted in laboratory settings, but with advancements in microelectronics and other micro technologies, testing and monitoring in natural environments is now possible. Chapter 7 discusses the use and application of inertial sensors for athlete assessment in the training and competition environments. The authors discuss the emergence of these sensors as a viable tool across a broad range of sporting activities at the elite level. Examples include golf, rowing, cricket and ski jumping.

Chapter VIII: Computer Supported Collaborative Sports: An Emerging Paradigm

Volker Wulf, University of Siegen, Germany
Florian ‘Floyd’ Mueller, Exertion Interfaces, Australia
Eckehard F. Moritz, SPORTKREATIVWERKSTATT, Germany
Gunnar Stevens, Fraunhofer FIT, Germany
Martin R. Gibbs, The Univeristy of Melbourne, Australia

Computing technology is increasingly being used to augment existing sports experiences. Chapter 8 looks at how computer games and computer augmented sports can be integrated to offer new, shared social experiences. The authors present Computer Supported Collaborative Sports (CSCS), which offer users the opportunity to actually participate in sports, even if they are physically apart. Two prototypes, which illustrate the sportive and collaborative aspects of CSCS, are presented.

Chapter IX: Digital Sport: Merging Gaming with Sports to Enhance Physical Activities Such as Jogging

Florian ‘Floyd’ Mueller, Exertion Interfaces, Australia

Chapter 9 also discusses how digital gaming can be merged with physical sports activities, though the focus of this chapter is on social jogging. Mueller presents a design prototype called “Jogging over a Distance”, which offers social joggers the opportunity to run together, although being in two different geographic locations. The system offers users both health and social benefits. Mueller argues that there is potential for computer gaming technology to offer new experiences and support a wide range of sports participants with different objectives.

Chapter X: Double Play: How Video Games Mediate Physical Performance for Elite Athletes

Lauren Silberman, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Chapter 10 presents an overview of commercial sport video games and their use by elite athletes for training purposes. Silberman presents personal insights, results from observational research and anecdotes to support her argument that video games offer educational benefits. By playing as an avatar that simulates the elite athlete, members of his/her team or an opponent, Silberman argues that physical performance can be enhanced from virtual play.

Chapter XI: A League of Our Own: Empowerment of Sport Consumers Through Fantasy Sports Participation

Donald P. Roy, Middle Tennessee State University, USA
Benjamin D. Goss, Missouri State University, USA

Chapter 11 introduces the reader to fantasy sports. Roy and Goss present a conceptual framework of the consumption of fantasy sports by postmodern sports fans. They propose that consumption is impacted by the interplay of psychological characteristics internal to consumers, social interactions, and external influences controlled by fantasy sports marketers. They conclude that fantasy sports offer fans increased opportunities for participation and empowerment.

Chapter XII: Computational and Robotic Pool

Jean-Pierre Dussault, University of Sherbrooke, Canada
Michael Greenspan, Queens University, Canada
Jean-François Landry, University of Sherbrooke, Canada
Will Leckie, Nortel, Canada
Marc Godard, Queens University, Canada
Joseph Lam, Queens University, Canada

Chapter 12 presents computational and robotic pool. The authors describe the challenges of computationally simulating the game of pool and creating a robot capable of playing cue-sports. They review recent work on artificial intelligence methods for strategic play, as well as work in robotic pool. The ultimate challenge is to create a robotic pool system that can compete directly against proficient humans, which the authors argue will happen one day in the near future.

Section II: Business Applications

Section Overview

Digital technology is being used in various ways to support business in sport. Commercial sport is indeed a business, which is growing in strength. Digital technology has done much to increase fan bases, attendance figures and revenue for professional sport. At the same time, it supports these businesses in their activities, enabling them to offer more to their customers. One could consider the many ways sport is now broadcast, the rise in consumer-generated media such has web logs, social network sites, fantasy sports leagues, electronic games and so on, all of which allow fans to experience sport in different ways, ultimately as they choose. With technology, power has shifted back to consumers. This section examines digital and other forms of mass sports consumption. The emphasis is not on the use of technology for the athlete or sports participant, as in Section 1. Rather, many of the chapters in this section consider the consumer perspective and how digital technologies can be used to enhance their experience. Many also consider how digital technologies can be used for enhanced business success and brand performance.

The section begins with Chapter 13, which looks at how Internet applications are being adopted within sporting associations, while Chapter 14 discusses how the Internet can be used to engage with distant sports fans. Chapter 15 highlights that distance is also a barrier when it comes to people visiting the traditional physical Olympic museum: something that the authors address with the use of virtual reality in their presentation of the Virtual Digital Olympic Museum. Chapter 16 serves as an introduction to electronic games, while Chapter 17 provides an overview of sport video game sponsorships and in-game advertising. These chapters are followed by two studies, which explore the effectiveness of promotional messages in games. Chapter 18 examines attitudes towards in-game advertising and effects on brand awareness. Similarly, Chapter 19 focuses on brand awareness outcomes, though the focus is on the effect of arousal on adolescents’ short-term memory of placements in advergames specifically. The section concludes with Chapter 20, which presents a technique for analyzing consumer schemas associated with athletes and endorsers. This is a technique that can be used by marketers, sporting management and sports organizations to monitor and evaluate marketing communications, sponsorship efforts and uncontrolled media sources. It therefore represents a tool that could potentially provide feedback on all the business activities discussed in this section.

Chapter XIII: A Framework for the Adoption of the Internet in Local Sporting Bodies: A Local Sporting Association Example

Scott Bingley, Victoria University, Australia
Stephen Burgess, Victoria University, Australia

With a focus on organized sport at a local level, Chapter 13 looks at how Internet applications are being adopted within associations and clubs, what they are being used for, and what effects they have on the associations and their volunteers. Bingley and Burgess describe the development of a framework that traces the adoption of an Internet application. They use the adoption of an online statistics program in a local sporting association as an example, to demonstrate how the framework may be applied in a practical situation. The authors suggest that the framework may identify lessons that can help to inform improved decision making in local sporting bodies.

Chapter XIV: Online Questionnaires and Interviews as a Successful Tool to Explore Foreign Sports Fandom

Anthony K. Kerr, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

With globalization and advances in communications technology, the potential marketplace for professional sports teams has grown to include foreign sports consumers, or what Kerr calls, “satellite supporters”. Chapter 14 presents a series of studies designed to understand the team identification of satellite supporters, which is important for developing marketing strategy. It also highlights how online research methods can contribute to sports fan research, especially when seeking to engage with distant participants. Kerr highlights how mixed methods can be successfully employed to explore sports fandom.

Chapter XV: Virtual Digital Olympic Museum

Gaoqi He, East China University of Science and Technology, China
Zhigeng Pan, Zhejiang University, China
Weimin Pan, Zhejiang University, China
Jianfeng Liu, Zhejiang University, China

Chapter 15 presents the Virtual Digital Olympic Museum (VDOM), which uses virtual reality to extend the main functionalities of the traditional physical Olympic museum. As such, the authors are able to capture the dynamic elements necessary to present the Olympic Games and create an improved experience for users. They propose solutions for digital-museum oriented data storage and retrieval, modeling and rendering of the digital museum, the virtual demonstration of sports and virtual humans, as well as virtual reality based sports simulation.

Chapter XVI: The Market Structure and Characteristics of Electronic Games

Kerri-Ann L. Kuhn, Queensland University of Technology, Australia

Chapter 16 presents an overview of electronic games in all their various forms, with discussion of the industry structure, game characteristics, and player motivations. It also explores the relationships games share with sport in terms of their ability to replicate sports, facilitate sports participation and be played as a sport. Kuhn presents ideas for future research in this important area.

Chapter XVII: Sport Video Game Sponsorships and In-game Advertising

Beth A. Cianfrone, Georgia State University, USA
James J. Zhang, University of Florida, USA

Chapter 17 reviews an increasingly popular form of promotion being used by marketers: sport video game sponsorships and in-game advertising. Cianfrone and Zhang discuss the growing trend and uniqueness of sport video games, along with reasons behind the growth of sponsorships and in-game advertising. They identify the advantages associated with this form of promotion and measurement issues associated with studying effectiveness.

Chapter XVIII: In-Game Advertising: Effectiveness and Consumer Attitudes

Mark Lee, RMIT University, Australia
Rajendra Mulye, RMIT University, Australia
Constantino Stavros, RMIT University, Australia

Chapter 18 presents a research study, which examined attitudes, recall and recognition of in-game advertising in a sport video game. The authors report that experienced players recalled and recognized significantly more in-game advertisements compared to novice participants, but their attitude towards in-game advertising was unexpectedly low. The authors suggest that marketers must consider many different factors in assessing the individual value obtained from a specific in-game advertisement.

Chapter XIX: The Effect of Arousal on Adolescent’s Short-Term Memory of Brand Placements in Sports Advergames

Monica D. Hernandez, University of Texas-Pan American, USA
Sindy Chapa, Texas State University, USA

Chapter 19 reports a study that examined factors affecting Mexican adolescents’ memory of brand placements contained in advergames. The results indicate that high arousal advergames lead to better recognition and more accurate short-term memory than moderate arousal advergames. Hernandez and Chapa recommend that advertisers create stimulating advergames, relying on fast pace or competitive game genres, in order to increase effectiveness.

Chapter XX: Schemas of Disrepute: Digital Damage to the Code

Ellen L. Bloxsome, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Nigel K. Ll. Pope, Griffith University, Australia

Chapter 20 presents a technique for analyzing consumer schemas associated with athletes. This technique can be used by marketers, sporting management and sports organizations. Bloxsome and Pope argue that it is necessary to evaluate consumer schemas developed from marketing communications, sponsorship efforts, and uncontrolled media sources, because they contribute to consumer perceptions of athletes and endorsers. There is potential for digital damage to sporting codes and brands where a negative difference occurs between player profiles and organizational image. This makes evaluation and monitoring important. The authors present a worked example of a study into consumer perceptions of sponsored athletes and their sport, using social network and correspondence analyses.