Evaluation of Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction Pathways for Improved Sustainable Business Performance in Emerging Economies

Job satisfaction is one of the vital needs of almost every employee in any well-structured organization. Any shortfall in the anticipated level of employee job satisfaction would affect the employees’ contribution to organizational effectiveness. The purpose of the research is twofold. It aims to study the relationship between different levels of employees’ job satisfaction in organizations and the impact of employee job satisfaction on the nature of roles performed by employees. The study found that employees’ job satisfaction significantly impacted their performance and productivity in the organization. Also, the significant impact of employee satisfaction has been found on the employee commitment to work. Furthermore, the significant outcome on organizational performance can be seen as the result of job satisfaction. The study results would help an organization understand the value of job satisfaction for an employee, which could help increase organizational commitment.

the individual's emotional attachment to the roles performed in an organization and the apparent relationship between the individuals' expectations and perceptions about the job. When employees are satisfied with their job responsibilities, they give their time, effort, and commitment to their job (Sharma, 2019). Employees' commitment and performance are paramount for the organization's survival, performance, and success in a competitive business environment. Buntaran et al. (2019) pointed out that the performance of employees depends on the significance of job fulfillment in the organization.
In contrast, Tatar & Ali (2020) argued that many organizations give little consideration to the importance of job satisfaction and its effect on behavior and performance of employees' organizational commitment due to senior management's lack of awareness of these factors. Sharma (2019) proposed that organizations should invest more in developing programs and activities that will influence the job satisfaction of their employees. Shmailan (2016) posed that employees who are not satisfied with their job do not perform well and become barriers to success. Satisfied employees tend to show a positive attitude in their work and are more productive and committed to organizational success (Hanaysha and Tahir, 2015).
Maintaining a certain level of employees' satisfaction with the jobs that they perform is crucial and paramount to attaining success in an organization. Therefore, understanding how best employers can keep their employees satisfied for more extended periods is critical in achieving better outcomes Mabasa & Grande, 2015. The lack of understanding on the part of employers about employees' job performance could prove catastrophic for the organization. According to Ehsani et al. (2013), maintaining higher levels of job satisfaction increases productivity, improves employees' physical and mental capacities, provides life-long satisfaction, improves morale, limits job incidents, and expedites new skills training. All in all, job satisfaction is the single most influential factor in determining the organization's overall success. Hence, it is essential to study the relationship between different layers of employees' job satisfaction in organizations and the impact of job satisfaction on the different roles performed by employees from public and private organizations. Job satisfaction in the workplace manifests from the positive interaction of role clarity, role overload, role ambiguity, role conflict, and job tension between the employees in the workplace. In contrast, the confusion arising from lack of role clarity, role overload, role ambiguity, role conflict, and job tension between the employees within the workplace can lead to lack of performance, lack of commitment, and duplication of roles and responsibilities in the workplace.
The increasing trend in the employment of female expatriates over the past decade has forced many organizations to review their perceptions about the working conditions of women on international engagements (Mohan, 2017). Women mostly accompany their husbands as spouses on international assignments; however, more women have expatriated overseas in the last thirty years compared to any period in history. Due to the change, Tung (2016) inferred a need to develop a global orientation towards both genders for organizations to be competitive. Firth, Chen et al. (2014) inferred that in the context of female expatriation, the manifestation of job satisfaction is satisfaction with the assignment undertaken. Therefore, job satisfaction of the overseas assignment can translate to the more prolonged presence on the job, strive to project themselves to top-level management, and commitment to the host country. Locke (1976) highlighted that most expats' trait of job satisfaction is the favorable emotional condition resulting from appraising an individual's experiences related to their assignments.

Research Gap
The engagement of female employees in their work results in increased satisfaction among their colleagues (Yeh, 2013;Rayton&Yalabik, 2014). Engagement is defined as the organization's commitment to fulfilling the obligations of female employees. Organizational culture also has a bearing on satisfaction as it is described as a predictor of female job satisfaction (Malek and Budhwar, 2013). Female employees make up nearly 50% of the workforce in any organization but have less representation in managerial positions (Caligiuri&Tung, 1999). An invisible ceiling restricts females from reaching higher management titles resulting in slow progress in reaching managerial heights in their assignments despite changes in legal requirements such as equality and discrimination favoring females. Despite all, a disparity between females and males still exists in the appointment of females to senior management roles and giving recognition to females as equals to their male counterparts in terms of remunerations and positions (LInehan&Sculion, 2001;LInehan&Sculion, 2009).

objective
The purpose of this paper is to discover the impacts of job characteristics, such as role clarity, role ambiguity, role conflict, role overload, and job tension, and personal attributes, such as age, education, income, and work experience, have on the female expatriates in terms of their satisfaction on their assignments. As Crowley-Henry & Weir (2007) proposed, the aim is not to generalize the results but to delve into career issues of expatriate women engaged in both the public and private sectors in Papua New Guinea. The paper examines the perceptions and attitudes of women expatriate employees working in Papua New Guinea organizations towards their jobs.
This study is vital because employees' job satisfaction is the key to attaining unprecedented performance for any organization (Koy, 2001). Thus, the organization's ability to demonstrate clear comprehension of female employees' emotional states, perception, and satisfaction level is essential. When an organization identifies the factors that allow dissatisfaction among its female ranks as a result of perception requires appropriate strategies to be implemented to improve staff determination and increase the levels of commitment and dedication to the course of the organization. In doing so, organizational productivity can be harnessed, and performance can also be improved simultaneously, resulting in the organization's overall success (Miah, 2018).

BACKGRoUND
In today's environment, job satisfaction is of interest to many organizations around the world. Many employers in Papua New Guinea, both in the public and private sectors, are concerned with employees' job satisfaction as it determines its success. A growing number of men feel intimidated as more and more women break into male-dominated positions. As a result, women are now perceived as competitors rather than partners for positions that men traditionally dominated. As the mythical restrictions about the roles of men and women disintegrate, the perception that women are hostile rather than partners in achieving success continues to gain momentum in the labor market. In addition, the male elite holds a lot of high positions in PNG, and women do not seem to be advancing fast enough -is it because they are more satisfied with the current conditions of their jobs compared to their male colleagues?

Female Employment and Job Satisfaction
According to Rayton and Yalabik (2014), in pursuit of discovering the link concerning female job satisfaction and work engagement concluded that job satisfaction mediates the connection between perception and work engagement that females have about their work, which indicates that engagement is achieved when the organization satisfies the requirements of female employees that results in employees attaining job satisfaction. Yeh (2013) concluded that the work engagement of more female employees leads to greater job satisfaction among their colleagues. The enabling organizational environment, support, and culture are an essential panacea for female job satisfaction (Mohan, 2017). Job satisfaction as a possible outcome variable of organizational culture is determined through studies by Barakat and Lorenz (2015). Malek and Budhwar (2013) stated that cultural intelligence could be viewed as a predictor of expatriate adjustment and performance. According to Cretoiu (2012), benefits of internationalization encompass expatriates with new experience, challenges, and tasks and motivate global managers to perform to expectations.
Although women in all industry sectors make up almost half of the total global workforce, the underrepresentation of women in top-level management and authoritative positions in the local and international job market continues to persist. (Caligiuri and Tung 1999). It is argued by Linehan and Scullion (2001) that female managers are faced with a glass ceiling that restricts their advancement into top-level management positions. Again, Linehan and Scullion (2009) posed a slow progression of women into senior management positions despite the continuous changes in legislation surrounding equal opportunity variables such as equal pay and sex discrimination. Despite overwhelming interests from women to progress, few female executives are being offered and taking up overseas positions compared to their male counterparts (Dizik, 2016).

Expatriate Female Employment and Job Satisfaction
Female expatriation is the process of sending female workers for assignments abroad (Mohan, 2017). McNulty (2014) proposed that women are overcoming the 'glass-ceiling through organizational mobility. The treatment of male and female expats continues to differ as the chasm between them continues to widen in unimaginable ways with little effort in narrowing that gap (Copeland and Meckman, 2018). Therefore, it is not surprising that the development of successful female expatriate managers has become increasingly important (Ashamalla 1998). David et al. (2019) revealed that female expats benefit significantly from a vast array of support rendered by the organization translates to longer tenures resulting in emotional commitment, satisfaction with their careers, and social responsibility to the community.
As per Vance et al. (2006) & Taylor et al. (2002, traditionally, the classification of expatriates was almost always exclusively reserved for males. However, the new trend of female expatriates today provides an additional and significant pool of talent for global firms to draw from. The evidence suggests that local managers achieve high satisfaction levels in terms of promotion, supervision, coworkers, and remunerations than their foreign counterparts. This is important because, in the initial stages of the expatriates' deployment, employees encounter unexpected challenges of adjusting to their new assignments, such as cultural shocks, high risks of failure in task completion culminating in the rise of anxiety and distrust of expatriates employees by employers in the host country (Chen, 2019). Previous research has proven that women tend to choose self-initiated careers overseas (starting and management their enterprises) than taking up foreign assignments (Tharenou, 2009). Historically, three reasons dignify low numbers of female expatriates: (1) lack of interest in international careers, (2) organizational reluctance in sending female staff abroad due to fear of poor performance, and (3) discrimination of women in foreign cultures (Adler 1987). Because of Cole and McNulty's (2011) assertion that the latest global business trend was attracting, developing, and retaining employees possessing required knowledge and experience in global business is critical.
Similarly, the newer patterns of engagement in foreign assignments that require constant travel or short-term assignments greatly appeal to females because it provides the benefits of managing the family and professional commitments compared to the more traditional long-term approach (Hutchings, Lirio and Metcalfe, 2012). According to Copeland and Meckman (2018), the international experiences of males and females tend to differ quite significantly in three ways: (1) different treatment accorded to them by their colleagues and customers both locally and internationally, (2) their familial roles may conflict with professional significantly affecting their performance, and (3) the possession of unique personal skills set that can be harnessed on the assignment. Copeland &Meckman (2018) ascertained that a firm stands to double its gains in growth and profitability by encouraging greater participation of women in foreign deployments by adequately supporting them in their assignments and welfare.

Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested to determine whether their reliability and validity supported the objective of this study.
H 1 : Role clarity will have a significant positive impact on job satisfaction.
Mohamed &Hosny (2020) propose that role clarity affects job satisfaction, positively affecting the worker's roles and responsibilities. They highlighted that role clarity is critical to organizations as it enables the processing of tasks and subsequent performance of that task by employees. Rovithis et al. (2017) concurred that employers must highlight the roles and responsibilities of each employee in order to attain superior outcomes of the tasks by specifying the critical aspects, the evaluation strategies, what factors are significant, how they will be evaluated, and how executing the responsibilities' functions would assist businesses in achieving their business objectives and success (Rovithis et al., 2017). Employees perform better when they understand what is expected of them in their work. The clarity of their roles will boost their job satisfaction and, as a result, their performance (Thangavelu&Sudhahar, 2017).
H 2 : Role overload will have a negative impact on job satisfaction.
According to Mittal and Bhakal (2018), role overload occurs when unrealistic demands are placed on the individuals' roles, requirements, and jobs that cannot be accomplished in a specified period beyond the capability of the particular employee to perform. (Rizzo et al., 1970;Cooper etal., 2001). Bacharach et al. (1990) stated that role overload is unnecessary demands placed on employees to effectively complete several tasks within a short period without confirming the employees' capableness in executing the task. Placing heavy workloads, more responsibilities, and unrealistic timeframes for impossible tasks deflate staff morale, ultimately affecting the job satisfaction of even the most committed and dedicated employees. It is sure to conclude that job stress negatively impacts the psychology of the employees, which can impact different facets of work-life, particularly job satisfaction. Job stress negatively weighs on job satisfaction where the more stressed an employee, job satisfaction decreases, high frequencies of delays and absenteeism, which may ultimately result in termination. Therefore, the lower the level of job stress, organizational commitment tends to rise.
H 3 : Role ambiguity will have a negative impact on job satisfaction Role ambiguity refers to the lack of precise instructions for guiding an employee's activities in a particular setting or reaching a particular goal (Alshery, Ahmad & Al-Swidi (2015). Role ambiguity is evident when the ratio of supervisors for an employee is more than one or there are varying standards and demands of a particular job. Role ambiguity causes dissatisfaction among employees and, as a result, decreases their organizational commitment, and ultimately, job performance is low (Shenkar, 1992). Rizzo et al. identified role ambiguity as to the extravagant demands of the organization in which an employee should meet about his role. Role ambiguity has a significant effect on job satisfaction in that it is the core factor that affects the performance of employees. Vazifehdust&Asadollahi, (2014) concluded that a positive relationship exists between role conflict and job performance and a negative relationship between role conflict and role ambiguity.
H 4 : Job tension will have a negative impact on job satisfaction Stress due to work has an indelible adverse outcome of the current trend of active work life. The majority of employees understand and experience job stress to a certain extent, mainly due to overwork, overstrain, insecurity, and rapid speed of life (Jehangir, Kareem, Khan, Jan, Soherwardi, 2015). Cooper firmly opined that stress results from an incompatibility between the employees and the environment (Cooper et al. 1994). Job stress is an emotional state experienced by most employees as they juggle an opportunity, challenge, limitations, or strains of what one needs, which is highly unlikely to be achieved or is unimportant (Robbins, 2001). Stress is described as the enthusiasm, sense of anxiety, or physical pressure that shows when the demands on employees are unrealistic because it exceeds the employee's capability to attain (Hellriegel, John 2004). Job stress affects both the mental wellbeing of the employee and the physical conditions, showing symptoms of exhaustion, annoyance, and digestive problems (House and Rizzo, 1972).
H 5 : Role conflict will have a negative impact on job satisfaction Role conflict was defined by Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman (1970) in light of the extent of congruence or compatibleness of the role's demands, in which congruence or compatibility is ascertained about the established protocols and procedures that significantly impact performance. Role conflict is the existence of two or more role expectations for individual jobs that are not compatible with each other. Role conflict is likely to happen when stresses between an employee's professional roles and personal roles are incompatible. According to Haholongan and Kusdinar Role (2019), conflict arises if a worker experiences: • The conflict between the tasks that he must do and between the responsibilities he has. • The tasks that he must perform, which in his view, are not part of his work. • Conflicting claims from superiors, subordinates, or others who are considered essential to him. • He was contradicting his values and beliefs when carrying out his work duties.
The five variables of the hypothesis will be tested using the following model: Figure 1 depicts the exploration of two factors of job satisfaction: work/task characteristics and broader organizational features, with quantitative analysis based on the nature of these variables. Research by Rousseau (1978) into Characteristics of departments, positions, and individuals: Contexts for attitudes and behavior did find that another dimension of job satisfaction is worker characteristics. Of the job/task characteristics, specific predictors of job satisfaction that received great interest are role ambiguity, skill variety, and task complexity. This received further support from Naumann (1993) in his research on Organizational predictors of expatriate job satisfaction, stating that "Role ambiguity, skill diversity, task identity, and task relevance are the strongest indicators of intrinsic pleasure among job/task characteristics. "If work/task features, particularly role ambiguity, skill variety, task identity, task relevance, and autonomy, were properly addressed in the construction of foreign job descriptions, expatriate job satisfaction might improve," Naumann (1993) concluded.

RESEARCH METHoDoLoGy
This research explores the actual job satisfaction levels of female expatriates in public and private sector organizations in PNG. A random sampling method was implemented to select respondents from companies listed on PNG Chamber of Commerce located in Port Moresby, Lae, Madang, Rabaul, Mt. Hagen, Goroka, Kimbe, and the Sepik Provinces. Of the 300 questionnaires sent out, only 113 were sent back, which yielded a completion rate of 37.6 percent. Job satisfaction (JS) was measured using an instrument developed by Izvancevich and Donnelly (1974). A five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to disagree strongly was used. Role clarity (RC) was measured using an index A questionnaire based on the dimensions of employee job satisfaction is selected. It has already been assessed for validity and reliability by a large number of researchers. It is crucial to examine a high level of validity and reliability. The questionnaire has two parts: First part of the questionnaire deals with personal information about respondents concerning age, designation, education, marital status, type of organization, job history before and after joining the organization, and their family structure. The second part consists of questions based on various constructs such as Job Satisfaction, Role Clarity, Role Overload, Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict, and Job Tension.
To test the hypotheses, LISREL 8, a structural equation modeling (SEM) procedure, was used (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1997) to determine the validity and reliability of the variables used in the study. The reliability of the constructs was measured using Cronbach Alpha coefficients. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is used to assess the reliability and validity. According to Bogazzi et al.,1988;Kline,1998, there are several indexes to estimate CFA. In this study it is considered to use p associated with Chi-square statistic which should be higher than 0.1, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) both indices should be higher than 0.9 and Root Mean Square of Approximation (RMSEA) which should be lower than 0.1.
From the questionnaire, the following demographic data were collected for the study: gender, age, education, and nationality.

Measurement of Reliability and Validity
The study's Coefficients of Scales, as well as the items investigated under the variable and reliability tests. In most social science study contexts, a reliability coefficient of.70 or greater is regarded "acceptable." Six items were used to quantify job satisfaction in terms of validity in the study using Cronbach's alpha. The six items have an alpha coefficient of.89, indicating that they have a significant level of internal consistency. That means the items are consistent with the hypothesis. There were a total of five items that were defined for Role Clarity. The Reliability testing was .82, which means

Reliability Testing
The significance of .74 was done through the testing for Role Ambiguity in which four items were used. A total of 5 items were explored for Job Tension, and the test was significant with a value of .76. All the hypotheses have high consistency.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIoNS
The For all five hypotheses, the p-value was less the .01, which implies that the hypotheses are testable. The proportion of variance is constant for the covariance meaning the cut-off point is not over .90. The CFI, NNFI, and GFI values for the hypotheses are over .90, meaning covariance for the tests is minimal and positive results can be drawn from the hypotheses testing. Under RMSEA, only H5 reached the cut-off point of .09, which implies that the hypothesis can produce results with minimal covariance. For R 2 , H1, H4 & H5 have values over the cut-off point, meaning the hypotheses are affirmative and supported.
The table below captures the Z and P values of the mean perceptions tested using the Nonparametric Test of Mann-Whitney U Test. For the sample, N=113. A p-value <.05(*) tests the significant difference. This test aims to clearly understand the relationship that each variable has with their impacts on Job satisfaction. A clear demarcation of the relationship helps to highlight the impact that each variable has on another. Table 5 explains the measurement based on a 5-point scale, 5 = strongly agree to 1= strongly disagree. The p-values are between the range of .00657 and .4029. The p-values with the asterisk (*) signs are the values that are less than the Confidence Interval (CI) of .05. Items 1, 2, 3, and 5 each have a p-value that is significantly lower than the CI value. In other words, the hypotheses of these items were supported. Item 4 has a p-value more significant than a CI of .05 (p>.05). The hypotheses cannot be accepted as the p-values are significantly more significant than the CI.

A Mann Whitney U-Test
The comparative analysis was done primarily to address the hypotheses.
H 1 Role clarity will have a positive impact on job satisfaction. The hypothesis is supported, as shown in table 5. The probability (p) value for item 1(.00657) is significant in which it is less than CI of .05 (p < .05). Therefore, we fail to reject H1. H 2 Role overload will have a negative impact on job satisfaction. The hypothesis has relevance and thus is supported. According to table 5, p value=.00965 is <.05).
Therefore, we fail to reject H2. H 3 Role ambiguity will have a negative impact on job satisfaction The hypothesis is supported with a p-value of .03730. It is less than CI (p<.05); therefore, we fail to reject H3. H 4 Job tension will have a negative impact on job satisfaction The hypothesis is not supported. The p-value of item 4 is .4029, which is greater than CI (p>.05).
Therefore, we fail to accept H4. H 5 Role conflict will have a negative impact on job satisfaction The hypothesis is significant and thus is supported with a p-value of .00931. It is less than CI (p<.05); therefore, we fail to reject H5.
Therefore, only the hypotheses of statements four are rejected, while the hypotheses of the other items were supported. In general, there was support for the hypotheses.

Correlation Matrix Model
The results of the Correlation Matrix tests were used to substantiate the hypothesized model below.
According to Figure 2, the dependent variable for this study is Job Satisfaction, which is proposed to be affected by other independent variables such as Role Clarity (0.85), Role Overload (0.53), Role Ambiguity (0.48), Role Conflict (0.34) and Job Tension (0.26), The values of the respective independent variables signify the degree to which these variables are correlated and how they impact on the Job Satisfaction. The last independent variable, job tension, has no significance as it does not influence job satisfaction significantly.
The independent variables influence job satisfaction to the extent to which they define and shape its nature and characteristics. There are several implications as to how job satisfaction is determined. However, a more empirical analysis should be done to determine the relevance and significance of these independent variables and their impact on job satisfaction. Hypotheses that regard Role Clarity, Role Ambiguity, Role Overload, and Role Conflict are supported during the study. There was a strong correlation between Role Clarity, Role Ambiguity, Role Overload, and Role Conflict; one or the other is impacting Job Satisfaction.

CoNCLUSIoN
The study's objective reviewed, theoretically, the relationship between different levels of job satisfaction in organizations and to study the impact of job satisfaction on the different nature of roles performed by female expatriate employees in public and private sectors in PNG. Based on the output results of the Descriptive Statistics, variables that gave strong positive statements for each of the factors that were tested included clearly defined company rules, policies and regulations, (Role Clarity), good working conditions (Job Tension), and the need not violate company rules to carry out assigned tasks (Role Conflict), the role is vaguely defined and no specification of the work (role ambiguity), focus on enlargement rather than enrichment (Role Overload). All these proved to affect the level of Job Satisfaction of the female employees sampled for this study. The test results supported several theories by previous authors, and these included Riad's (1996) theory that present pay had the least contribution to job satisfaction. In addition, public employees were generally found to receive relatively more non-monetary motivation than monetary ones. Compensation indicants proved not as significant as other factors.
Secondly, H 1 revealed that role clarity significantly and positively impacted job satisfaction. Therefore, it is essential that the organizations set rules and procedures so that there is clarity on the female expats to fully apply themselves to their assignments to produce the outcome desired by the employer organization. Thirdly, H 2 in matters of role overload, the hypothesis proved that enlargement of female expat employees' tasks negatively impacts their satisfaction with their jobs. As the work is piled on with less access to information and limited discretion of decision-making endorsements, they find the job unsatisfying, and their performance negatively skews. Next, H 3 regarding the ambiguity of the roles performed by female expats, it was confirmed that when the roles are ambiguous, employees find that there is no motivation and ill intention to fully perform their assigned tasks resulting in unsatisfied employees. As a result, it is highly likely that female expat decision-making may opt-out of their assignments or change jobs. In addition, H 4 in this study posited that the job tension, which includes factors like working conditions, culture, and interpersonal relationships on the job, has a lesser impact on the satisfaction of the female expats' employees to perform their assigned tasks resulting in unsatisfied employees fully role overload. The ambiguity of the role and conflict arising from their job arrangements are minimal; female expat employees will attain satisfaction. Last but not least, H 5 dissected the impact of conflict with the female expats' roles and concurred that employees are dissatisfied with their assignments when they perceive or feel that there is conflict in their assignments.
Data for the present study were collected only from female expatriate employees in the public and private sectors, and thus better comparisons can be made in future studies if the opinions of the men are also surveyed. Past literature collected for the study discussed a little bit on women and gender norms (Willa, M.B, Blackburn J.W, 1992) -home role occupations and so on, further studies Source: Ramasamy and Inore (2020) can also look into whether traditional factors such as role occupancies and Organizational cultures (GulAtabek 1994) affect Job Satisfaction in the PNG societies. Items that can be developed to test Job Satisfaction could include Gender Inequality and Cultural factors as well. This research paper focused on studying the concept of Job Satisfaction among female expatriate workers from both public and private organizations in Papua New Guinea. The factors that were tested in this study included Role Clarity, Role Overload, Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict, and Job Tension. It has thus been proved that these factors affect and contribute to the level of job satisfaction among female expatriate workers in Papua New Guinea.

RECoMMENDATIoNS
This research contributes to the body of knowledge on job satisfaction of female expat employees on foreign assignments the relationships that job characteristics share with satisfaction gained from a work arrangement. Firstly, the results from this study will aid organizations to readily downplay the negative aspects related to the roles of female expats in organizations and ensure that the roles and the context in which employees function is favorable and there is positivity resounding from the engagement. Secondly, this study will provide managers with the information and awareness required to ensure that the organization is healthy and that the role specifications are appealing to female expats.
Below are the approaches that organizations may take to improve foreign professional opportunities for women.
• We're reviewing the training and cross-cultural briefing sessions offered to female expats. The training and briefing sessions should be tailored specifically to the needs of female expatriates, including topics such as suitable coping and behavioral approaches in patriarchal cultures, protocol, customs, male attitudes, and dress regulations. • They were involved in inter-organizational organizations such as the International Labor Organization, which is always working to better women's positions in international labor markets. International opportunities for women employees can and should be improved in the future. • Domestic organizations in developing nations should create policies and practices to accommodate women in a variety of family situations, such as flexible work schedules, child care assistance, and career leave. • Economic empowerment-such as income and compensation of expatriate women should be substantial as it increases motivation and job participation. • Organizations should establish communications platform for more significant interaction to ease problems like role ambiguity and role conflict. • Organizations should create pathways for indigenous women to make inroads into predominantly male jobs, attracting female expatriates to apply their trades in PNG.
There must be procedures, regulations, standards, and policies clearly outlining the roles that both local and foreign female employees play and monitoring and evaluation mechanisms set in place for feedback and information so that roles are precise and adequate.

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIoNS
The implications for practitioners and organizations alike can be interpreted as counsel for female expatriate managers-the resulting implications derived from this thesis's empirical data, analysis, and conclusions.
The factors that are important for female expatriates believe in themselves, take advantage of opportunities, take on complex assignments, and satisfy their appetite for new challenges. When taking up overseas assignments, much is dependent on a person rather than gender. However, for female expatriate candidates, it is required that one must demonstrate the skill and ability and must be suitable for the deployment in order to be respected, particularly in countries where masculine values are promoted over feminine ones. Moreover, the female generally is better skilled than their male counterparts in building networks which is a bonus during the recruitment process. It is also vital to garner the support of the spouse and family and prepare for the relocation of the family, and planning for the partner's career is essential.
Furthermore, globalization has paved a way forward for women to take on the daunting challenge of international assignments. Countries are beginning to see women as equal partners in development where their voice resonates beyond cultural and traditional barriers that usually hinder women. As a result, men in male-dominated societies become aware of the changes and development regarding the acceptability of women in organizations worldwide. This changes their perspective on women as mere maidservants to equal partners in development.
On a more somber note, divorce is rife among women on international assignments, which causes women committed to their spouses and capable of global employment to tend to hesitate or turn down the offer. Moreover, due to problems between spouses, many women juggle the burden of a failed relationship and organizational demands, which increases the stress factor that leads to women returning home to repair the family, which ultimately results in underperformance in their assignments.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIoN
In the future, one direction for research on the subject would be investigating the success factors of married women against non-married women on foreign assignments. Interestingly, investigating how organizations improve the success factors of married women compared to single women is essential. Also, the same kind of research on female expatriates' success factors could be conducted in different industries and between female expatriates located in two or more developing countries to see how much variation in the success factors can be found.
Another area of future research on the subject could be to examine the problems faced by dualcareer couples when a male is an accompanying spouse. In the future, this issue of dual-career couples might be crucial to the success of female expatriates and their organizations. The willingness to handle this matter might also be a competitive advantage to the companies in the future.
Furthermore, the benefits of executing qualitative research on the subject of job satisfaction should be greatly emphasized. Cultural transitioning is an emotional adaptation process, where the female will undergo several different cycles of emotional and cultural indulgence, depending on how long the person has been on assignment. To examine this, qualitative research could preferably be done over a more extended time, making follow-ups from initial impressions to the end of an assignment.

CoNFLICT oF INTEREST
The authors of this publication declare there is no conflict of interest.