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Social media (SM) are interactive technologies that allow users to create and share content via social networking sites (SNSs) or virtual communities (Obar & Wildman, 2015; Statistics Canada, 2021). All SM applications are Web 2.0 Internet-based, contain user-generated content (e.g., photos, text, videos), and require a user to design and maintain an online profile (Obar & Wildman, 2015). Various forms of SM are available, including SNSs (e.g., Facebook, Instagram), instant messaging services (e.g., WhatsApp), blogging sites (e.g., Tumblr), multiplayer online games (e.g., World of Warcraft), and virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life; Ryan et al., 2017). SM has revolutionized the way people search for information and consume entertainment media (Firth et al., 2019) and has become increasingly popular amongst Canadians (Statistics Canada, 2021). For instance, in 2018, SM was regularly used by about 9 in 10 Canadians aged 15 to 34 (Statistics Canada, 2021) and it is thought that Canadian SM users currently stand at a record of 25.35 million users (Tankovska, 2021).
As with other popular technologies, other popular technologies, the evolution of SM presents both opportunities and risks for users (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Statistics Canada, 2021). One of SM’s greatest attributes is its ability to increase connectivity (Akram & Kumar, 2018). Specifically, SM allows individuals to create and maintain personal (e.g., friends and family) and professional (e.g., career networking) relationships, irrespective of physical distance (Keles et al., 2020; Verduyn et al., 2017). In addition, SM allows users to create virtual spaces (e.g., forums, groups) where individuals can express their views and creativity, which can aid in relieving stress, anxiety, and sadness (Keles et al., 2020). SM can also reduce many barriers to social participation (e.g., social anxiety), which can provide increased emotional support, while simultaneously diminishing social isolation and loneliness (Keles et al., 2020).
Although SM has many benefits, excessive or inappropriate usage has the potential for negative psychosocial and physical outcomes (Karim et al., 2020; Twenge et al., 2018). For example, in 2018, Statistics Canada (2021) reported that around 1 in 8 Canadian SM users reported feeling anxious, depressed, or envious of the lives of others. These negative emotions often emerge due to the overwhelming strive for positive self-presentation on SM, whereby users only upload flattering images or information about personal accomplishments or material successes (Festinger, 1954; Verduyn et al., 2015). This frequent exposure to others can lead to idealized perceptions of other users’ lives, which in turn increases the potential for negative comparison (i.e., social deprivation and low self-esteem; Festinger, 1954; Primack et al., 2017). SM can also impact an individual’s physical health with Statistics Canada (2021) suggesting that among all SM users aged 15 to 64, around one-fifth reported decreased levels of physical activity (22%), lost sleep (19%), or trouble concentrating on other activities (18%) because of SM usage. Moreover, extended SM usage can increase sedentary behaviour, a known risk factor for obesity and cardiovascular disease (Reid Chassiakos et al., 2016). Even more troubling, individuals who spend a significant amount of time on SM may be more susceptible to developing obsessive compulsions to use SM applications, also known as a SM addiction (Andreassen, 2015; Marino et al., 2017). SM addiction or addictive behaviours often places individuals at a higher risk of these adverse effects (Andreassen, 2015; Karim et al., 2020; Marino et al., 2017).