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Top1. Introduction
The ever-increasing affordability, accessibility and sophistication of mobile communication technology has infiltrated the education market (Hao, Dennien, & Li, 2017). The ubiquitous nature of mobile technology enables learners to have access to resources ‘appropriate to their immediate situation’ (Read, Bárcena, & Kukulska-Hulme, 2016), which offers enormous opportunities to support learning and teaching both inside and outside the classroom (Martin & Ertzberger, 2013).
In the field of second language learning (L2), mobile devices have truly become language learners’ personal digital assistants (PDAs) (Godwin-Jones, 2011). The wide range of language learning mobile applications encourages learners to be more learner-centred (Burston, 2014). As a result, the practices and behaviours of language learners are changing (Kukulska-Hulme, 2012a; Arvanitis, Krystalli, & Panagiotidis, 2016). Mobile learning is especially important in a distance language learning context when students constantly struggle with the time as they work whilst studying (Glogowska, Young, & Lockyer, 2007); and when there is limited interaction between teachers and students and amongst peers (Kan, Owen, & Bax, 2018). Language learning outside class hours, assisted by mobile devices, is essential to the development of language competence (Levy & Kennedy, 2005; Kukulska-Hulme, 2012a). Previous studies have revealed that L2 adult distance learners are becoming more and more self-directed learners as the technology enables them to be better organized and spend more time learning the language than before (Demouy, Jones, Kan, Kukulska-Hulme, & Eardley, 2016; Kukulska-Hulme & De Los Arcos, 2011).
With the increasing ownership of mobile devices among the world’s largest English language learning population and the Ministry of Education in China actively encouraging the use of technology in promoting instructional efficiency in college English language education (cf. China Ministry of Education, 2016), it is important to examine how learners in China use mobile devices to support their English language learning, and what and how mobile learning resources are used so that mobile language learning can be effectively embedded into the teaching. A better understanding of it is particularly important in distance education when the boundaries between formal classroom learning and informal outside class learning are blurred (Demouy et al., 2016). Our study intends to find out if the reported emerging practices among Western distance learners reported in Demouy et al.’s study (2016) apply to a different cultural context, i.e. adult distant learners at the university level in China. If there are differences, we will explore the reasons behind them. Our study also aims to extend Demouy et al.’s study in the sense that we look beyond emerging practices to include two new dimensions: i) to link the skills practiced or knowledge areas obtained with their favourite apps/resources; ii) and to explore learner perceptions of the tutor’s role.
Our study is guided by the conceptual framework with six aspects of analysis proposed by Kukulska-Hulme (2012a) for next generation designs for mobile-assisted language learning to explore the interaction between time, space and characteristics of learning activities. Underpinned by Kukulska-Hulme’s conceptual framework (see 3.2 for further details), our study partially replicates Demouy al.’s study (2016) in terms of using some of the questions in their survey in order to compare distance learners in the UK with those in China.