The development of executive functions (EFs), such as self-regulation of emotion and behaviour, begins in infancy and continues throughout the preschool period. The authors will briefly discuss some of the nuclear dimensions that emerge in the first moments of the life cycle: working memory, automatic response inhibition, and flexibility. In the chapter, development of executive functions in preschool age is structured in three sections: (1) Initially, the basic concepts related to the conceptualization and different explanatory models of the EFs are developed, focusing on the model of Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, Howerter, and Wager. (2) Then, the neuropsychological development of the EFs is addressed, analysing the prerequisites and subsequent trajectories of the executive dimensions. The relationship of the EFs and behaviour regulation is analysed, as well as the factors that facilitate or interfere with the development of the EFs. (3) The chapter ends with some conclusions and final reflections.
TopExecutive Functions: Introduction
The empirical concept of Executive Functions (EFs) was developed from neuropsychological research conducted in patients with prefrontal lesions, mainly in the dorsolateral region, and in experimental animals (Leichnetz, 1989). It is attributed to Fuster (2000) and — subsequently — its dissemination is attributed to Lezak, but the merit of its conceptualization belongs to Luria. For Lezak (1982), EFs include capacities that enable individuals to perform effective, creative, and socially accepted behaviours.
Luria (1966) outlined this construct in his book, Higher Cortical Functions in Man. In this work, he raises the most innovative postulates, relating EFs to intellectual functions. Executive functions overlap with the concept of fluid intelligence in the theory of the ability to optimally adapt our cognitive resources to the changing demands of the environment. For him, intellectual functions have a first component, which he calls static or formal intellect, which is involved in activities such as conceptualization, judgment, or reasoning. The second component is the dynamic intellect, which covers all those capacities necessary to solve any type of intellectual problem, which are broken down into capacities such as formulating the problem, constructing the hypothesis, designing strategies to confirm or discard the hypothesis, and choosing the appropriate tactics. All the functions of this dynamic intellect are summarized as “the implementation of a forward-looking program of action”. Years later, Luria (1973) conceptualized the EFs as a group of functions that regulate human behaviour.
Sohlberg and Mateer (1989) consider that EFs encompass different cognitive processes: anticipation, choice of objectives, planning, behaviour selection, self-regulation, self-control, and use of feedback.
They are, therefore, a set of cognitive processes linked to the functioning of the prefrontal cortex (mainly), involved both in the control of cognition and the regulation of behaviour and thoughts (Tirapu, Muñoz, & Pelegrín, 2002).
They are the basis of the ability to set a goal and work toward that goal (Diamond, 2013; Lehto, Juujärvi, Kooistra, & Pulkkinen, 2003; Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, Howerter, & Wager, 2000), coordinating thought and action (Hendry, Jones, & Charman, 2016).
EFs are a set of cognitive abilities that have as their main objective the achievement of success in the culmination of plans, trying to provide solutions to complex and difficult situations. To achieve this, it is necessary to set goals, organise, plan, initiate, anticipate, self-regulate and monitor one's actions.
They are essential to various aspects of daily life (Espy, Kimberly, McDiarmid, Cwik, Stalets, Hamby, & Senn, 2004; Harvey & Miller, 2017) and to cognitive, social and psychological development (Diamond, 2013).
Finally, their development is related to a lower incidence of behavioural disorders, they predict future functioning (academic, social and personal) and general intelligence (see Figure 1):
Figure 1. Impact of executive functions