Abstract
More mass public shootings occur in the United States than anywhere else in the world, and these incidents occur in a variety of locations, including educational facilities. There is strong reason to separate elementary, middle, and high schools from institutes of higher education (such as colleges and universities) when studying mass school shootings. These incidents vary based on the type of school by the characteristics and motivations of the shooter as well as locational characteristics and appropriate prevention strategies. This chapter provides an overview of the differences between mass shootings at K-12 schools and those at IHEs. The authors also discuss the prevalence and characteristics of mass shootings at IHEs and introduce several prevention policies, along with relevant proposed and current legislation.
TopDefining Mass Shooting In Higher Education
Definitions of what constitutes mass murder differ slightly depending on the number of victims. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines mass murder as a massacre involving four or more deceased victims in a single episode (Fox & Levin, 2012). The Investigative Assistance for Violent Crimes Act of 2012, which was signed into law on January 6, 2013, defines a mass killing as a killing with at least three deaths, excluding the perpetrator. It is worthwhile to note that while the killings may stretch over a period of hours, they are all still part of the same emotional experience (Alvarez & Bachman, 2003). This is illustrated by the massacre that took place in 2007 when Cho-Seung-Hui killed two students in a residence hall at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia, and then about two hours later went across campus and killed 30 more students, faculty, and staff before killing himself.
Some media outlets, politicians, and community members respond to mass shootings at school, regardless of the type of campus, in a similar manner. Typical responses include shock, disbelief, anger, and calls for policy change. Nonetheless, it is important to make clear the differences not only in the perpetrators who carry out these killings, but also in the type of educational institutions where these murders occur. When examining mass killings on school campuses, much of the literature focuses on school settings that are primary and secondary schools (Bondü, 2012; Leary, Kowalski, Smith, & Phillips, 2003; O’Toole, 1999; Verlinden, Hersen, & Thomas, 2000; Vossekuil, Fein, Reddy, Borum, & Modzeleski, 2002). The focus of this chapter is on mass shootings that occur at institutes of higher education (IHEs).
IHEs provide postsecondary academic, career, technical, and continuing professional education programs after high school (Digest of Education Statistics, 2017). These schools have some discrete differences from elementary and secondary schools. For instance, without minimizing the horrific trauma or impact of such massacres, college attacks occur at a lower frequency than those occurring at primary or secondary institutions (De Haven, 2009). As scholars and law enforcement agencies alike research and investigate these events, distinct differences can be made among these settings and the shooters (e.g., McBride & Truhan, 2014; Fox & Savage, 2009). And while on the surface it may appear that all institutions of learning are similar, when mass shootings at all learning institutions are treated similarly, we fail to understand whether there are any underlying differences among these events that may affect our best responses to them.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Mass Shooter: A person who kills at least three others at one time or over an extended period that may stretch out over a period of hours.
K-12 Institution: Educational institutions providing training from the kindergarten level through the end of high school.
Institute of Higher Education: Institutions that provide postsecondary academic, career, technical, and continuing professional education programs after high school.
NTAC: National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC): the Presidential Threat Protection Act of 2000, Congress authorized NTAC to provide training to school administrators, faculty, staff and law enforcement in order to foster a safer school climate. The NTAC’s mission is to lead the development of evidence-based threat assessment techniques to prevent rare, non-random violent acts that impact both local and international communities.
Threat Assessment Team: Teams consisting of a combination of mental health, administrative, and campus policing or security staff. These teams work on establishing trusting relationships and open lines of communication between students, faculty, staff, administration, and local law enforcement.
Clery Act: Legislation mandating that colleges and universities publish certain crime statistics by October 1 of each year and respond with an alert to affected areas of campus in the case of an active and ongoing threat.
USSS: United States Secret Service. The United State Secret Service created the National Threat Assessment Center in 1998 to focus on research, training and threat assessments related to various forms of targeted violence following the tragedy at Columbine High School in April 1999. The Secret Service partnered with the Department of Education to study 37 incidents of targeted violence that occurred at elementary and secondary schools leading to the establishment of threat assessment programs in schools (see NTAC).
Campus Carry: Legislation regarding the right or denial of faculty, staff, and students to carry concealed weapons on campus, generally dictated at the state level.