Abstract
Antimicrobial medicines are taken orally or parenterally. These molecules are primarily eliminated by kidneys. However, several studies indicate that the methods of wastewater treatment are not sufficient to effectively remove these drugs from the environment, such as excreted antibiotics and antifungals in urine. Thus, antimicrobials can pollute the food chain. Mutations of bacteria and/or fungi may be responsible for the emergence of new drug resistances, with irreparable global consequences. The chapter's aim is to present a new and inventive purification device of human urine during treatment with antimicrobials. The regular use of this device by citizens during treatment with antimicrobials may lead to a reduction of more than 30% to 50% of these molecules in urine, with the reduction of antibiotic or antifungal pollution.
TopIntroduction
Medicines, such as antibiotics and antifungals for human or veterinary use are usually primarily eliminated by kidneys, excreted in urine, and disseminated to the environment as residual chemical substances in wastewaters (Eyler et al., 2019; Regitano et al. 2010). Around 30%–90% of antibiotics are excreted through urine and feces within 8–24 h after being taken (Frade et al., 2014). Antibiotics are disseminated into environment (partially degraded and/or undegraded) through wastewaters leading to antibiotic pollution and resistances, while its bioremediation is a demanding task (Kumar et al., 2019). Pharmaceuticals are emerging as pollutants of water sources, with an increased risk of antimicrobial resistances. Antibiotic resistances pose a risk for both humans and animals (Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy, Inc., 2021). According to a report from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): “antimicrobial resistance is a large and growing problem with the potential for enormous health and economic consequences globally” (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2019; Padget, 2018). Antimicrobial resistances may occur with bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, as a consequence of their changes over time. These changes may generate drug resistances, which may lead to difficulties in treating infections, increase the risk of spreading infectious diseases, severe illness, and death (World Health Organization, 2022).
The use of antimicrobials is globally increasing, with the highest consumption in Low-to-Middle-Income Country (LMIC). The predominant use of antibiotics in LMIC may be explained by the fact that these medicines become more accessible and affordable. However, the access to newer and more effective antibiotics in LMIC is more limited than in developed countries. The use antibiotics increased 90% worldwide, with an impressive growth of 165% in Low-to-Middle-Income Countries between 2000 and 2015 (Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy, Inc., 2021). In the European Union (EU), health complications related to antimicrobial resistance increased between 2007 and 2015: nearly one in five infections is due to antibiotic-resistant bacteria, with 33 000 deaths out of more than 670 000 infections from antimicrobial resistant bacteria. For instance, the number of deaths associated with K. pneumoniae resistant to carbapenems increased six-fold. Narrow prevention and control measures are highly recommended in health care settings to mitigate the spread of this bacteria. According to the projections of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) antimicrobial resistance will keep growing from around 17% of infections with antibiotic resistance in 2015 to 19% in 2030 in the European Union (Cassini et al., 2019; Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2019).
Key Terms in this Chapter
Purification: Any process that results in the reduction or elimination of impurities.
Patents: Patents are an exclusive right over a certain invention (products, their uses or process). Patents ensure the exclusive right to produce or commercialize a certain product. Patents comprise all the technical characteristics of a certain invention. Preferably, examples of the invention should be described. Patent applications are submitted to national or international Industrial Property Institutes, which are responsible for assessing the patentability of a certain invention.
Human Urine: Urine is a white to yellowish liquid, excreted through the urethra.
Research and Development: Scientific investigations that may led to new and inventive products and/or process.
Inventions: A technical solution to solve a specific technical problem.
Antibiotic: Active compounds against bacteria. These antimicrobial substances are capable of destroying or slowing down the growth of bacteria.
Antibiotic Resistance: When microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi acquire the capability of resisting to the antimicrobial action of antibiotics through mutations.