Abstract
Orientation and mobility (O&M) are recognized as integral components of the expanded core curriculum for students with visual impairment, so learners with visual impairment require direct and sequential instruction provided by an O&M specialist to be able to acquire the skills necessary to interact with others. This chapter will focus on O&M instructions with visually impaired (VI) children, a group neglected when the profession was established. To contextualize this, the chapter begins with a brief history of O&M, before reviewing various definitions of O&M and highlighting a professional philosophical approach to O&M intervention. The chapter will focus on the role of O&M specialists, then describe the core O&M techniques, as an understanding of these techniques is required to appreciate the traditional resistance to the implementation of O&M intervention with children. Also, the chapter discusses the O&M assessment for VI before concluding and discussing different techniques for O&M skills.
TopBackground
History of the O&M Profession
In the past, it has been reported that individuals with visual impairment use to travel by using a stick or getting guided support from others (Hoover, 1950). In the 19th century, in some residential facilities, the individuals were tied together to move, a process referred to crocodile technique by Ritchie (1930), O&M skills have gone through many different stages and changing names in the past (Bledsoe, 2010) for example “foot travel”, were basic, either self-taught or passed on through teachers who were themselves blind. Despite the establishment in 1929 of the Seeing Eye dog guide school in the United States, (Blasch & Stuckey,1995) explain training in this context emphasized the skills of working with a dog guide rather than independent travel. (Bledsoe,2010) confirms the terms “orientation” and “mobility” were not used until the 1940s and 1950s, following the development of formal O&M techniques.
The catalyst for the foundation of the O&M profession came about with the involvement of the United States in World War II, and the return to that country of an unprecedented number of soldiers with injuries causing partial and complete vision loss (Bledsoe, 2010; Miyagawa, 1999). The need for rehabilitation services within the military hospitals was so high the Veterans’ Administration established a Surgical Division of Ophthalmology in 1943 at the Valley Forge General Hospital in Pennsylvania. Miyagawa (1999) reports the focus of rehabilitation was initially on self-care, braille and typing, along with the provision of the psychological support required to adjust to adventitious blindness. There were no formal techniques for teaching safe independent travel; however, within the hospital setting it became apparent there was a need to develop some means by which blinded soldiers could travel independently.
The use of a long cane as a mobility aid was first described in detail by British writer, W. Hanks Levy, who was himself blind, in 1872. During the early 20th century, a short white cane had been used as a means of identification, generally in conjunction with sighted assistance, although (Ferguson,2007; Miyagawa,1999) report that many who were blind resisted using this cane due to negative connotations of dependency. Dog guide users initially made use of a short white cane, however (Whitstock, et al.,1997) explain this technique was thought to be ineffective and the practice was phased out in the United States.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Mobility: Mobility refer to the ability to move safely, efficiently, and effectively from one place to another, such as being able to walk without tripping or falling, cross streets and use public transportation.
Orientation: Orientation is how individuals establish and maintain an awareness of their physical location through sensory input and environmental feedback.
Orientation and Mobility Specialists: Person who responsible to teach individuals with visual impairments to travel safely, confidently, and independently in their environment.
Inclusive Education: It means real learning opportunities for groups who have traditionally been excluded and teach them with their normal peers in the same classroom.
Instruction: Refers to a set of techniques that target spatial and environmental concepts and use information received by the senses (such as sound, temperature, and vibrations) to establish, maintain, or restore direction and line of travel.
Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC): It means the knowledge and skills needed by students with visual impairments due to their unique disability and specific needs.
Visually Impaired: Refers to any person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye after best correction (contact lenses or glasses), or a field of vision of less than 20 degrees in the better eye, also they are learning via braille or other non-visual media.