Motorized transport has been around for over a century and has benefited people in various ways. As awareness has increased of the negative effects of car use, efforts to reduce pollution, congestion, noise, and accidents have increased. Some cities have taken drastic measures to reduce the number of cars. The starting point of this chapter is a balanced intervention ladder that includes interventions that can either increase or decrease autonomy. The authors introduce the “three-dimensional balanced intervention ladder” as a framework that can be used to describe autonomy relating to reduced car use, balancing this against perceived accessibility and wellbeing. The consequences of travel mode changes have been substantially explored; however, the consequences with respect to accessibility and wellbeing in life have only recently been recognized. By reviewing current research, they identify knowledge gaps in the implementation of balanced interventions and make recommendations regarding the continued development based on autonomy, perceived accessibility, and wellbeing.
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In several European cities, various interventions to reduce car traffic have either been adopted and implemented or are planned to be implemented in the near future. Stated reasons often relate to environmental and health issues (such as reduced pollution or noise), or to improving safety by decreasing congestion. The types of interventions implemented so far are varied. In Madrid (Spain), petrol vehicles manufactured before 2000, and diesel vehicles manufactured before 2006, have been banned. In Paris (France), vehicles manufactured before 1997 are banned on weekdays and a car-free day, the first Sunday of each month has been introduced. In Brussels (Belgium), a surveillance system has been implemented that enables the identification of diesel vehicles, which are then fined when they enter the city center. Urban road pricing schemes have been designed and implemented in Europe, e.g., London (2003), Stockholm (2007), and Milan (2008), resulting in a modal shift in car drivers toward public transport equalling 10-13% (Croci, 2016). In Oslo (Norway), several interventions have been implemented to restrict car use, including limiting the number of parking spaces in the city center, limiting the road space available to vehicles, and building pedestrian and bicycle lanes. In Copenhagen (Denmark), there has been investment in constructing superbike lanes. Other cities have invested in free public transport (Tallinn in Estonia), with mixed results when it comes to decreasing car use. Cats, Susilo, and Reimal (2017) showed that the proportion of car users decreased by 5% following the implementation of free public transport, but that the average distance travelled by a car simultaneously increased, leading to a 31% increase in total vehicle km. The bus rapid transit (BRT) system is another solution for reducing the need to travel by car. A BRT system is a high-quality bus-based public transport service that complies with an objective quality standard, including off-board payment, segregated bus lanes, platform-level boarding, integration with bicycle-sharing systems, and minimal bus emissions. Implementing BRT systems has, however, shown large variations in car use reduction, ranging from 4% to 50% and indicating that contextual factors are of importance (Ingvardson & Nielsen, 2018).
This chapter aims to discuss interventions aimed at reduced car use in relation to people’s autonomy (freedom of choice and self-determination). We also extend our discussion to include potential effects on travellers’ perceptions of accessibility, satisfaction, and wellbeing after (voluntary or less voluntary) travel mode changes, the knowledge that is mostly lacking. In doing so, we review current knowledge and elaborate upon balancing the potential consequences of interventions for car-free cities for autonomy, accessibility, and wellbeing. The chapter ends with a discussion on the implications for research and policymaking.