Abstract
In recent years, scholars have noted that there are gender-specific vulnerabilities and risks faced by women throughout their livelihood trajectory, making them more susceptible to trafficking. A number of axioms have emerged that provide a generally accepted framework that women and girls are more disadvantaged because of their gender and social class. Due to gender discrimination and the undervaluation of low-skilled occupations, women are commonly concentrated in low-skilled and lowly paid jobs such as domestic work that are unregulated and informal with little or no legal protection. These conditions make women particularly vulnerable to gendered-specific exploitation, forced labor, extortion, debt bondage, and violence. This study examines the socio-religious and cultural discourse surrounding gender and human trafficking in Nigeria. The study reveals that even when human trafficking is not a new phenomenon, it has acquired a new dimension in the context of globalization and has been facilitated by increased mobility and the development of the internet and new technologies.
TopIntroduction
Trafficking in human beings otherwise known as human trafficking, or trafficking in persons is a serious crime and a flagrant violation of human rights, has become a global epidemic that violates the human rights of the victims and is a global threat to democracy and peace (Akhtar, 2019). Human trafficking involves a variety of abuses such as sexual exploitation, domestic servitude, forced labor, debt bondage, prison labor, pornography, organ removal, and segregation (Dennis, 2008). Even when it is not a new phenomenon, human trafficking has acquired a new dimension in the context of globalisation and has been facilitated by increased mobility, and the development of the internet and new technologies. Among the reasons why human trafficking is an ever more flourishing business are that it involves low risks and brings in high profits. It is obvious that victims of human trafficking, through fear and/or shame, tend not to declare themselves to the authorities, as a result, it is difficult to prosecute traffickers and the actual number of victims is difficult to establish.
Human trafficking has received increasing global attention over the past decade. Initially, trafficking of women and girls for forced sex work and, to a lesser extent, domestic servitude, were the sole focus of advocacy and assistance. Today, there is recognition that women, children and men are trafficked into many different forms of labour, and for sexual exploitation. Labour-related trafficking occurs in a wide range of sectors, such as agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, mining, forestry, construction, domestic servitude, cleaning and hospitality services (Buchanan, 2009). Trafficked people may also be forced to work as beggars or soldiers, and women and children can be made to serve as ‘wives’. Human trafficking and other forms of modern day slavery have long been recognised as particularly and disproportionately affecting women and girls. It is estimated that at least 70% of the 40 million people trapped in modern slavery around the world today are women and girls, forced to work in dangerous and exploitative conditions in nail bars, massage parlours, on farms and in private homes (Buchanan, 2009).
Notwithstanding the number of efforts from the Nigerian government, nonprofit organizations, religious institutions and well meaning individuals in developing a human trafficking awareness program to combat crime in Nigeria, a gap exists in exploring how people in rural communities in Nigeria understand human trafficking as a crime and the implications of not knowing. It also probable that this gap may exist because of cultural or traditional gender beliefs among the citizenry as well as the government’s lack of adequate efforts to protect people in these vulnerable communities. It is worthy of note that human trafficking is often driven by several factors such as poverty, gender prejudice, lack of awareness, limited family support, and lack of social connections among others (Jones, 2010)). Often time, these crimes often happen in areas with limited education or regions inhabited by weak and vulnerable people with failing situations who have limited knowledge about the offense (Bélanger, 2014 & O’Brien, 2015).
Key Terms in this Chapter
Child Sexual Exploitation: A child is a victim of sexual exploitation when she/he takes part in a sexual activity in exchange for something (e.g., gain or benefit, or even the promise of such) from a third party, the perpetrator, or by the child her/himself. A child may be coerced into a situation of sexual exploitation through physical force or threats. However, she/he may also be persuaded to engage in such sexual activity as a result of more complex and nuanced factors, either human or situational, including a power imbalance between the victim and the perpetrator. While any child may be sexually exploited, children may also find themselves in a situation that makes them particularly vulnerable to such exploitation (e.g., poverty, abuse/neglect, unaccompanied/homeless). Furthermore, the age of a child may increase her/his vulnerability to sexual exploitation, with older children often mistakenly assumed to be either consenting to their own abuse or not in need of protection. “Exploitation” in this context is thus a key term, the meaning of which marks its difference from sexual violence and sexual abuse of children. The main distinction lies in the notion of exchange involved in exploitation, which is lacking from the concepts of abuse and/or violence.
Underground Economy: An illicit industry in which the activities used to produce a good or service violates one or more legal regulations within a country. This can range from paying an illegal immigrant in cash for a day’s work, to the selling of illegal chemical products, to the trafficking of human beings.
Exploitation of Children for Prostitution: Sexual exploitation of children for prostitution is frequently referred to as “child prostitution”, both in legal instruments adopted in the 21st century and in the mass media. This form of exploitation consists of a child performing a sexual act in exchange for (a promise of) something of value (money, objects, shelter, food, drugs, etc). It is not necessarily the child who receives the object of exchange, but often a third person. Moreover, it is not necessary that an object of exchange is actually given; the mere promise of an exchange suffices, even if it is never fulfilled.
Gender Equality: Prostitution and sexual exploitation are highly gendered issues with in most cases women and girls selling their body, either by coercion or consent, to men or boys who pay for this service. Accordingly, the majority of those trafficked for sexual exploitation are women and girls. While there is consensus that sexual exploitation should be eradicated, the concept is gaining ground that prostitution cannot be supported as a legitimate business because it is contrary to the principles enshrined in the Charter of Fundamental Rights, among which is gender equality.
Sex Industry: The sex industry is not limited to prostitution but includes a wide range of activities such as pornography, Internet sex, phone sex, strip clubs, and other related sexual services. However, pornography and prostitution are considered the most profitable businesses within the market. M Farley’s study across nine countries showed a strong bi-directional link between pornography and prostitution.
Transactional Sex: Another complex term commonly used in the discourse around sexual exploitation of children in prostitution is ‘transactional sex’. The term refers to commodified relationships in which sexual acts are exchanged for cash, goods or benefits, often linked to survival, but also for other benefits like educational achievement or elevated social status. It is argued that ‘transactional sex’ differs somewhat from sexual exploitation of children in prostitution as it may involve “agreement or predetermined payment, form part of a broader set of social obligations, is often embedded in an emotional relationship, and is generally not perceived by communities as a form of prostitution or sexual exploitation. The reality is not so black and white, there are a range of complex nuances at play holds the concepts of sexual exploitation of children in prostitution and transactional sex are not mutually exclusive. However, it can be said that whenever adults are exchanging sex for anything with children, it always constitutes child sexual exploitation. Furthermore, ‘transactional sex’ may in fact be ‘survival sex’, where sexual services are exchanged for basic necessities such as food, clothing or shelter. In instances of survival sex, one party is exploiting another’s need for basic necessities, and is taking advantage of the power they have to provide these necessities in return for sexual acts. “Transactional sex” is described as a commodified relationship in which sexual acts are exchanged for goods, cash, or benefits, often linked to economic survival, educational achievement, enhancing one’s economic opportunities, or boosting one’s social status. The term “transactional sex” first appeared in the 1990s as part of the discourse on HIV transmission patterns among young women in Sub-Saharan Africa. Indeed, transactional sex has been associated with increased risk of sexual violence, and higher risk of HIV transmission.
Globalization: The period directly following the end of the cold war. A period of integration and increased interaction among bodies of people. Increased levels of international trade, foreign investment, and technological advancements. Convergence of information, goods, and services across borders.