The current model of higher education uses digital technologies for learning. One of the major applications is their use for online examinations. However, the validity of these exams is questioned, suggesting the commitment of dishonest practices by students. This research analyses whether self-deception behaviours negatively influence the students' learning performance. First, the authors carry out an identical midterm test to the same students in an online environment and in a face-to-face environment, and exam marks are compared. Second, they carry out a regression analysis where they introduce a dummy variable that reflects the changes on the midterm exam mark and analyse how that variable influences on student learning. Data from 230 students from three different courses in business are used. The findings show that students have a higher mark in the online exam than in the face-to-face exam, suggesting for dishonest behaviours. Also, those students who had a dishonest behaviour in the midterm exam have a lower performance in the final exam, suggesting the existence of self-deception.
TopIntroduction
The importance of economic growth and innovation for our society has led to the development of a knowledge-based economy and society, where technological development has driven innovation towards, business, social, and economic changes (Saura et al., 2022). The Lisbon agenda seeks to make the European Union the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, driven by the application of new technologies and accelerating the shift to high-skilled workers, which is reflected in the expansion of higher education and the key role of higher education in national and European policies (Brown, Lauder, Ashton, Yingje, & Vincent-Lancrin, 2008). The Bologna Declaration on the European Space for higher education in 1999 meant a change in the higher education system. It directed the creation of the ‘European Higher Education Area’ by 2010, which aimed more transparency in higher education institutions and the removal of obstacles to students and staff mobility, as well as an improvement on the training quality. In response of these objectives, higher institutions are implementing changes in teaching methods (Fidalgo-Blanco, Sein-Echaluce, & García-Peñalvo, 2014; Monteiro, Leite, & Lima, 2013), such as the introduction of educational information and communication technologies (ICT). These advances have therefore enabled the development of strategies for data management, predicting user behaviour or analysing user actions, emong others (Saura et al., 2021). The ICT policy in higher education aims at preparing young people to participate creatively in the establishment, sustainment and growth of a knowledge society that leads the development of nations and global competitiveness (Toro & Joshi, 2012).
The importance of ICT in times of COVID-19 should be emphasized, since in several countries of the world, universities have opted for remote education (Crawford et al., 2020), as well as companies had to adapt to new technologies and platforms to continue to operate efficiently during the pandemic (Saura et al., 2022a). The correct use of the ICT mostly depends on elements such as the training and profile of the teaching staff and the resources available, both technological and pedagogical (Fernández Cruz, Fernández Díaz, & Rodríguez Mantilla, 2018). Therefore, the situation of COVID-19 has highlighted the improvement of ICTs in the whole educational area since it has allowed traditional teaching method to be transformed in its entirety (Parra, Regalado, & Poma, 2020; Saura et al., 2021a).
ICT have acted as an important driver for change (Kirkup & Kirkwood, 2005), becoming an important component of learning as it provides additional opportunities to support the learning process (Agrawal & Mittal, 2018). The current model of higher education takes advantage of the potential of diverse digital technologies in different areas. ICT have been introduced into courses to support distributed or part-time learners, or simply to supplement classroom-based teaching (Kirkup & Kirkwood, 2005). Hence, not only are these technologies used for distance or blending learning, but they are also applied to conventional courses. There is considerable variability in adoption patterns in higher institutions when it comes to the activities and purposes for which ICT are being used (Kirkup & Kirkwood, 2005; Suara et al., 2022b). One of the major applications is the use of ICT for online examinations at any modality of teaching.
However, the introduction of ICT also has a dark side since it is characterized by the separation between learner and instructor, emerging some threats to the transparency and honesty, such as contract cheating (Rundle, Curtis, & Clare, 2019) or exam cheating (Watson & Sottile, 2010). In particular, the validity of online exams is questioned since the lack of vigilance might lead students to commit dishonest practices, emerging a debate about the prevalence of dishonest behaviours in online examinations vs face-to-face examinations (Stuber-McEwen, Wiseley, & Hoggatt, 2009; Watson & Sottile, 2010). Measures that assure quality teaching and learning in these contexts are paramount as learning quality has been identified as a trait of the Higher Education Area (Andrade, 2014).