Abstract
This chapter explores the concept of implicit racial bias as a significant factor contributing to the disparities between the discipline rates of White and Black students. While overt acts of racism are not as common as they were during other times in United States' history, implicit or unintentional racial bias still leads to differences in educational opportunities for the nation's students. The chapter begins with an examination of the concept of implicit bias broadly before turning toward implicit racial bias specifically. The chapter continues with a historical overview of the ways in which schooling for Black students has always been controlled by a dominant White society. Next, the researcher presents current data about the inequities in exclusionary discipline practices. The chapter concludes with recommendations for recognizing and addressing implicit bias and the problems it creates.
TopIntroduction
In the United States of America, families often link the attainment of a quality education with the American dream (Noguera, 2003). Parents hope that their children gain equitable access to learning opportunities so that they might succeed academically and socially. Unfortunately, equitable opportunities are not always available; differences in educational experiences exist. Over the course of the last few decades legislators have mandated countless policies to hold schools accountable for the success of their students, but even when schools have ample funding, rigorous curricula, and quality facilities, inequities still appear (Losen, 2014a). These inequities are often visible when comparing outcomes across multiple schools or districts, but they also occur internally within individual schools. For example, two children attending the same school can have vastly different educational experiences, though on paper it would seem all things were equal. While these differences may be traced to a range of causes and effects, of particular concern is the link between implicit racial bias and the disproportionality of school disciplinary practices between White students and their Black peers.
Existing research demonstrates that implicit bias is endemic in society, and the nation’s K–12 educational settings are not immune to this problem (Cameron et al., 2010; Chin et al., 2020; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Teachers’ implicit racial biases negatively affect all students’ educational outcomes (Chin et al., 2020; Quinn, 2017; Warikoo et al., 2020) and severely impact Black students in particular. Because of implicit bias, White teachers can see Black students as disobedient, disruptive, or defiant and consequently Black students are more likely to be suspended than their White peers (Anyon et al., 2014; Losen, 2014). Even for minor misbehaviors, Black students often receive harsher punishments. When White teachers discipline Black students, the outcome of those students’ experience is often significantly different than those of their White counterparts (Chin et al., 2020; Fay, 2018).
The disciplinary disparity can be detrimental to Black students’ psyches and negatively impact their futures. The effects of these disciplinary practices exacerbate the academic demise of Black students but also extends beyond the academic setting (Riddle & Sinclair, 2019). These disciplinary actions put Black students at a higher risk for negative consequences within the school system such as in-school and out-of-school suspension, but furthermore, offenses at school are often linked with the criminal justice system leading Black students to have earlier contact with that system (Riddle & Sinclair, 2019; Vavrus, 2008).
While the problem of implicit bias in K–12 schools is current, it is rooted in the systemic racism that was present at the dawn of this country and ever-present in the history of the country’s educational establishments. The story of education in the United States is inextricably linked with the practice of a dominant White society disciplining Black bodies. These practices and their effects were easier to see in the days of slavery and Jim Crow, and although they are less visible when carried out through implicit bias, their impact is still damaging. Though legally, Black students are supposed to have the same education as their White peers, implicit bias lingers in today’s modern educational institutions. There is an urgent need in school districts across the country to address racism and implicit bias that influence high discipline numbers among Black students.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Restorative Justice: Processes designed for criminal justice systems used in the school system to keep large number of Black students in school by working to repair or rehabilitate the student’s negative behavior rather than giving them exclusionary discipline measures ( Payne & Welch, 2015 ).
Implicit Racial Bias: A significant causal factor that affects the unconscious mind and generates negative behavior from a person’s cognitive values and beliefs. This behavior creates unintentional stereotypes, attitudes, and discriminatory outcomes that affect the non-dominant races while manifesting visible cultural biases and economic, social, or racial gaps ( Chin et al., 2020 ; Greenwald & Krieger, 2006 ; Ormrod, 2017 ).
Aversive Racism: A phenomenon of “bias without intention” where a person may celebrate diversity, but also unintentionally hold onto negative feelings and beliefs about a minority group of people ( Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986 ).
Equity: Creating a level “ playing field” by recognizing that advantages and disadvantages exist making it difficult for equal treatment to be truly fair for poor, underserved, powerless and vulnerable groups or individuals.
Stereotype: A bias idea or image that one has against a person or group based on an aspect of their identity such as race, gender, or religion. This behavior can go against the person’s core principles of not being prejudiced ( Devine et al., 2012 ).
Multicultural Relevance: A concept stressing the importance of weaving information about diverse cultures, along with their ethnicity and beliefs, into the curriculum to enrich the educational system ( Gay, 2002 ).
Equality: Providing an opportunity for everyone to have equal treatment despite their race, color, creed, or religion ( O’Bryant, 2018 ).
Black/Black Americans: Black Americans are a diverse group of people that identify as Black. They come from different background cultures, ethnicities, and nationalities, but share the same characteristics that include their race, color or complexion of their skin, and their lineage to Africa (Tamir, 2021 AU97: The in-text citation "Tamir, 2021" is not in the reference list. Please correct the citation, add the reference to the list, or delete the citation. ).
Exclusionary Discipline Practices: Disciplinary practices that exclude students from their home school classroom either by excluding them from instruction during school hours through placement in an in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, or expulsion ( U.S. Department of Education, 2021 ).
Zero-Tolerance: Extreme disciplinary punishments that administrators assign immediately after one infraction. These policies contribute greatly to the school to prison pipeline process that disproportionately impacts Black students resulting in long-lasting educational gaps ( Greenwald & Banaji, 1995 ).