What is Evolution (Biological, Cultural, Cosmic)

Evolution can most simply be defined as ‘descent with modification’ ( Chaisson, 2001 ; Darwin, 1859 ). Here the concept of evolution includes the (post-1940s) Modern Evolutionary Synthesis (aka ‘Neo-Darwinism’) including Multilevel Selection Theory ( Gontier, 2012 ). ‘The evolutionary process requires variation, differential survival and reproductive success, and inheritance’ ( Capra & Luisi, 2014 , p. 200; see also Dennett, 1995 , p. 343). Laszlo (1972) explains atoms, biology and social systems as classes of natural (and sometimes designed) systems ‘sharing invariant fundamental properties’ ( Laszlo, 1972 , p. 56) and demonstrates that evolution occurs across natural systems ( Laszlo, 1972 , pp. 57-117). 11 Systems and artifacts (inputs and outputs) are selected (or deselected and thus ‘falsified’) by their environment ( Popper 1999 ). The iterative and recursive Evolutionary Algorithm (namely: variation, selection, transmission) satisfices rather than optimizes. 12

The Holon/Parton Structure of the Meme, or The Unit of Culture

J. T. Velikovsky (University of Newcastle, Australia)