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TopWhat Is An Apprenticeship?
First, it is important to define the meaning of apprenticeship because both the Chinese and Japanese cases mentioned above have developed in one way or another from apprenticeship. Focusing on the definition helps gain a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of current school education. An apprenticeship can be defined as human relations based on mastery of certain occupational skills and acquisition of occupational identities (Rikowski, 1999). More specifically, it involves master-apprentice relations (sometimes with fictive kinship) and methods of learning on the job (Coy, 1989). In the world of traditional performing arts, it is generally characterized as a process of learning basic forms as well as spiritual dimensions of performance from masters who could be quite authoritative and exclusive when it comes to teaching (Fukushima,1995; Ikuta, 1987). Apprenticeships are often compared to school education because of their lack of tests, curriculums, and textbooks (Sigaut, 1993). Moreover, based on its basic characteristics, some education studies researchers and cognitive scientists have developed a learning theory that characterized apprenticeship learning as a way to increase the amount of participation in the community (where practitioners with different level of mastery of skills mutually interact); it also effectively illuminated the decontextualized nature of school learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
In terms of industrial history, however, apprenticeships are usually regarded as the product of pre-industrial society, so they now only exist in traditional craftsmanship, in the entertainment industry, or in certain limited modern occupations such as meat-butcher, iron-steel worker, and doctor (Fukushima, 2002; Geer, 1972; Long, 1998; Williams, 1981). Furthermore, existing apprenticeships have undergone a certain degree of historical change. The British construction industry is one example. According to Clarke (1999), it has transformed itself in the construction industry in at least four different historical stages, including the trade company apprenticeship, statutory apprenticeship, and so on since the 14th century. Similar situations are observable in many other industries (Ainley & Rainbird, 1999; Aldrich, 1999; Ryan, 1999). Meanwhile, in some cases, such as in the performing arts, apprenticeships have gradually developed back into modern schools while retaining some features from the old days.