Abstract
This chapter is a critical review of circle practices. The author first examines the philosophical underpinnings behind similar practices of restorative justice, circles, circle practices, and talking circles. Then, the author explores the description of protocol and procedures of talking circles in the literature by various others. Thirdly, this literature review examines talking circles used in practice in the literature. This chapter synthesizes and critiques existing literature, as well as video resources and oral tradition. Circle practices are a traditional Native American practice of communication and community which has a strong spiritual core as a means for restorative justice. For some Native American people during talking circles, it is believed the person holding the eagle feather or talisman cannot tell a lie.
TopBackground
As a clarification, the term Native American will be used interchangeably with American Indian, Indian, Indigenous, Aboriginal, First Nations, and native, depending on how researchers in the literature used it. The following are monikers for groups of indigenous people discussed as generally, in academia, the terms Native Americans, American Indian, and Indian refer to people who traditionally, and to this day, occupy North America, referred to as Turtle Island by Native American people (Jervis et al., 2006; Johnston-Goodstar & VeLure Roholt, 2017; Lyons, 1992). In Canada, First Nations people is the term used to describe their original inhabitants (Quinn, 2007). In Australia, the term for their indigenous inhabitants is Aboriginal people (Atkinson, 2002). In New Zealand, the original inhabitants are referred to as Maori (Pihama et al., 2017).
Although it is not standard practice to include a statement of positionality in a literature review, it is my understanding through academics such as Rupert Ross (1996), it is connected and interrelated. Particularly as it pertains to my critiques of literature, I would be remiss if I did not mention my own ethnic identity as an Oneida researcher. This is important to note because my paradigm as an Oneida indigenous researcher is influenced by (a) my ontology, my view of reality; (b) my epistemology, how I think about this reality; (c) my axiology, my morals and ethics; and (d) my methodology, how I go about gaining more knowledge about reality (Wilson, 2008). Research is also seen as ceremony for some indigenous researchers. Shaun Wilson of the Cree Nation puts it best when he states,
Something that has become apparent to me is that for indigenous people, research is a ceremony. In our cultures an integral part of any ceremony is setting the stage properly. When ceremonies take place, everyone who is participating needs to be ready to step beyond the everyday and to accept a raised state of consciousness. You could say that the specific rituals that make up the ceremony are designed to get the participants into a state of mind that will allow for the extraordinary to take place. As one Elder explained it to me: if it is possible to get every single person in a room thinking about the exact thing for only two seconds, then a miracle will happen. It is fitting that we view research in the same way- as a means of raising our consciousness. (Wilson, 2008, p. 69)
Key Terms in this Chapter
Communication: The mechanism by which individuals share meaning between one another.
American Indian: A term commonly used to describe indigenous people who derive from the region which was inhabited before the United States of America (U.S.).
Spirituality: Difficult to describe in words, yet spirituality is often mystical, mysterious, and tied to a connection with the sacred space defined by the individual or culture.
Eagle Feather: In certain Native American traditions, the eagle is the bird above all other birds and is a liaison between creation and the spirit world. Eagle feathers are sometimes used as sacred talismans, or talking pieces, during talking circles, and protected by U.S. federal legislation.
Burden Basket: Used in Apache style talking circles, this is a woven basket where individuals symbolically place their burdens or concerns into so as to release them from oneself.
Decolonizing Ideologies: Smith (2013) outlined 25 decolonizing ideologies for indigenous people to reclaim indigenous ways of thinking in academia and life.
Circles: Another common term to refer to circle practices, talking circles, or restorative justice.
Restorative Justice: A practice which seeks to bring about reconciliation and healing for both the abused and the abuser through a circle practice of communication.
Talking Circles: A traditional Native American practice of communication which brings a group of people together in a circle and uses a talisman or other talking piece to distinguish who is speaking as everyone else listens.
Native American: A term used to describe Indigenous peoples who derive from the countries that comprise the North, South, and Central Americas, and commonly used to refer to those indigenous to the continental U.S.
Talisman: A sacred object which people use during a talking circle, and whomever holds the object has the right to talk while everyone else listens.