Abstract
Applying Edward W. Soja's work on spatial justice as an analytical lens, this chapter discusses the use of separate introductory programs for newly arrived migrant students in Norway. Although the use of separate programs for newcomers has been criticized for counteracting the aims of inclusion, this chapter suggests that from a spatial perspective, separation in itself is not necessarily a sign of exclusion; rather, it is what happens in an introductory program and how the actual space affects practices that matter. Furthermore, a sensitivity toward place and space can help educators pay attention to newly arrived students' backgrounds and needs without separation from their mainstream peers becoming a perceived barrier to inclusion. Acknowledging Soja's idea that social processes and discursive practices also influence place and space, a spatial perspective warns against letting ideological (and sometimes superficial) ideas about inclusion shape and govern practices.
TopIntroduction
Increased global mobilization has changed the composition of students in many classrooms around the world. In Norway, immigrants and Norwegian-born to immigrant parents make up 16% of the total population (Statistics Norway, 2023), while in the largest cities, such as Oslo, children with an immigrant background can make up to 70% of the student population. Newly arrived students comprise a significant group of these students, providing the school community with a rich variety of experiences and backgrounds. In 2022, for example, many newcomers were students who had fled with their families from the war in Ukraine, while in 2008, the financial crisis had a large impact on international migration, leading families from Portugal, Spain, Iceland, and other countries to seek employment opportunities in Norway. Moreover, during 2015–2016, more than five million refugees reached the Mediterranean shores of Europe, having undertaken difficult and dangerous journeys from Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, and other countries. Some settled in Norway, making the group of new arrivals even more diverse.
To cater to the literacy needs of newly arrived students to Norway, newcomers are either placed in separate preparatory classes—so-called introductory classes—or given intensive language support within their regular classes. However, the use of separate plurilingual programs in Norwegian schools has been heavily debated. In particular, the use of separate programs has been criticized for counteracting the aims of inclusion by failing to allow newly arrived students interact with their peers in mainstream classes. According to Fandrem et al. (2021), for example, the practice of separate introductory classes does not seem to be “sufficiently adjusted to the student’s need for inclusion” (p. 1). A similar objection has been raised by Aarsæther (2021), who claimed that separate introductory programs “do not succeed in facilitating interactions between newcomers and their mainstream peers, nor among the teachers in separate programs and teachers in mainstream classes” (p. 16). Moreover, based on a classroom study of the teaching and learning of English in separate plurilingual programs, Burner and Carlsen (2017) concluded that “separating students the way it is done in introductory classes may lead to cultural segregation” (p. 193).
In this chapter, I aim to contribute to a more nuanced discussion of separate plurilingual education programs by introducing Soja’s (1996, 2000, 2009, 2010) theoretical concepts of place and space. Soja’s work on spatial justice has revitalized a multidimensional understanding of spatial influence on ethics, which is often framed as “the spatial turn” in the humanities and social sciences. In his later writings, Soja related his understanding of place and space to ethical perspectives, such as social justice and inclusive practices. According to Soja, place is not an empty container to be filled with content. Rather than treating the spatial dimension as a fixed background, Soja argued that place and space should be seen as significant forces shaping social action. Instead of exclusively focusing on how social processes such as “class formation, social stratification, or racist or masculinist practices shape geographies” (Soja, 2010, p. 4), one should ask “how geographies actively affect these social processes and forms” (Soja, 2010, p. 4). Not least, Soja advocated for recognition of the relationship between space and place in the sense that they not only form discursive practices but are also shaped by social processes.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Inclusive Education: Inclusive education refers to an educational approach that aims to accommodate and support the diverse learning needs of all students, including those with disabilities or special educational needs. The fundamental principle of inclusive education is to provide equal opportunities for learning and participation to every student, irrespective of their background, abilities, or characteristics. An inclusive education system recognizes and values diversity among students and promotes equitable access to quality education for every learner.
Exclusion: In education, exclusion refers to the deliberate or unintentional act of preventing students from participating fully in the process of learning. It involves practices or policies that result in the segregation, marginalization, or denial of opportunities for certain individuals or groups, leading to their limited engagement or involvement in educational activities. Exclusion may manifest in various forms, such as social exclusion, academic exclusion, or exclusion based on factors like socio-economic status, ethnicity, language proficiency, or special educational needs. Addressing exclusion involves promoting inclusive educational practices that ensure equitable opportunities and access for all students.
Newly Arrived Students: Newly arrived students typically refer to individuals, including refugees, asylum seekers, children of migrant workers, and economic migrants, who have recently migrated to a new country or region. These students may face unique challenges such as adapting to a new culture, learning a new language, and adjusting to a different educational system. The term is commonly used in the context of educational policies and programs aimed at supporting the specific needs of these students during their transition and integration into the new school environment.
Spatial Turn: The term refers to a theoretical shift and increased emphasis within various academic disciplines towards considering place and space as crucial factors in understanding social, cultural, and historical phenomena. This shift involves recognizing the significance of physical locations, geographical arrangements, and spatial dimensions in shaping human experiences, identities, and interactions. The spatial turn has influenced disciplines such as geography, sociology, history, education, and cultural studies, encouraging scholars to explore how place and space impact social processes, power dynamics, and the construction of meaning.
Place and Space: Place and space are terms frequently employed in diverse disciplines such as geography, sociology, and educational philosophy, each carrying nuanced meanings based on the specific context. ‘Place’ is typically associated with a specific location, characterized by a unique identity and cultural context. On the other hand, ‘space’ is a broader term that encompasses the general physical or abstract extent within which objects and events exist or occur.
Introductory Classes: In many countries, education for newly arrived students is organized in specific introductory classes (or preparatory classes), providing a basis for a gradually transition to the mainstream system. These classes can be organized as separate programs or integrated within a school. Typically, the duration of time spent in introductory classes is limited, often to a maximum of two years.
Spatial Justice: Spatial justice refers to geographical aspects of social justice and injustice. The term recognizes that spatial arrangements and regional and urban planning decisions can have significant social, economic, and environmental implications, and advocates for policies and practices that promote fairness and social cohesion across various geographic settings.