Abstract
A significant body of applied police research has investigated the effectiveness of various use of force (UOF) training approaches that traditionally cover decision making (i.e., shoot/no-shoot), situational awareness, and resilience. However, there remains a lack of established educational standards for police UOF instructors beyond physical and tactical competence, including pedagogical principles to promote effective learning. The authors aim to provide police agencies and UOF instructors around the world with a pragmatic framework of evidence-based training that promotes learning, retention, and practical application. The chapter begins with an overview of essential skills and knowledge related to UOF followed by identification of various methodological approaches suitable for instruction of both novice and expert police officers. The chapter will also outline a train the trainers instructor course that is currently offered at the Police University College of Finland. This chapter informs consistent and adequate pedagogical training for and by UOF instructors.
TopIntroduction
There has never been a more urgent need to identify evidence-based practices that promote effective training and application of police use of force (UOF). A critical aspect of the current demands for widespread police reform include increased transparency, accountability, and consistency in how UOF is trained and practiced by police agencies around the world. However, there is a wide variety of discrete competencies, skills, and behaviours related to UOF that are inconsistently defined, trained, and evaluated. This chapter begins by addressing the lack of industry standard and defining essential operational and psychological skills related to police UOF. Rooted in evidence from cognitive neuroscience, health psychology, and adult learning theory, this chapter will also outline several methodological approaches that can be used separately or in combination to effectively train UOF-related skills. Specifically, this chapter will provide a pedagogical framework that UOF instructors can use to develop curricula that will promote both: a) intended learning outcomes, and b) consistency of training and evaluation. Given the consequences of UOF errors on the health and safety of both police and the public, it is not sufficient to presume that officers highly competent in the application of UOF are inherently capable of UOF instruction. Woven throughout the chapter and highlighted in the final section are pedagogical principles and characteristics of effective instructors in police UOF, including the timing and delivery of training and instructor feedback. A sample overview for a ‘train the trainers’ course is also provided to guide police agencies around the world with a useful, systematic, and pragmatic framework for effectively training officers in the essential skills related to UOF at all levels – from novice to instructor. Adhering to evidence-based standards will contribute to increased public and occupational health and safety by reducing errors in the application of police UOF.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Standard Force Equipment: Depending on agency resources, available options can include baton, oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray, canine, non-lethal weapons (e.g., electrical conductive weapon or Taser, bean bag or rubber bullet shotgun), and firearm.
Decision-Making: Distinct from the application or performance of any given UOF skill, decision-making is a complex cognitive process that involves selection of the most appropriate behaviour or force option based on available information to resolve every encounter as safely as possible.
Physical Use of Force Skills: Hands-on physical control, leading, holding, seizure, arrest, and self-defence.
De-Escalation: Not a finite skill or technique that can be taught in a single module or lesson, but rather an overarching process that can be integrated into all UOF training. Includes verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as employing physical and tactical skills and force equipment as needed to preserve and protect life.
Situational Awareness: Complex and dynamic combination of cognitive skills related to: a) perception from multiple senses (e.g., sight, sound, smell, proprioception or sense of balance and position); b) understanding the relationships between the officer, suspect, and the surrounding environment (e.g., officer initiated action vs. reaction to target behaviour); and c) predicting possible outcomes based on prior experience and training, as well as constraints introduced by physical setting (e.g., placement, distance) and presence of bystanders and/or potential weapons ( Endsley, 1995 ; Klein, 1993 ).
Tactics: Consideration of timing, approach, position, movement, distance, containment of threat, and officer roles (i.e., primary, secondary) that together with 360-degree situational awareness promote effective decision-making.
Internal Monitoring: Can include emotional regulation, stress management, and resilience promotion. Awareness and adaptive regulation of universal human responses to threat (i.e., increased heart rate, blood pressure, narrowed attention), and understanding their effects on perception, emotion, cognition, and behaviour. Typically offered as ‘additional’ or ‘optional’ training, but should be mandatory component of both basic and advanced UOF training to promote performance, physical, and mental health.
Communication Skills: Includes verbal and non-verbal communication to meet situational demands (e.g., conversations, advice, instructions, orders). Verbal communication involves articulate, purposeful, specific, clear, and explicit language. Non-verbal communication includes controlling body language and tone of voice.