Abstract
Microaggressions are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative slights and insults toward people who are not classified within the “normative” standard. Perpetrators of microaggressions are often unaware that they engage in such communications when they interact with people who differ from themselves. This review of microaggressions in its numerous forms seeks to address the current literature regarding aversive behavior and its impacts; this includes investigating the manifestation and influence of everyday “isms,” on the quality of life of those on the receiving end of these acts. Ensuing suggestions regarding institutional-level education, training, and research—particularly in the higher educational realm—in the work towards reducing microaggression-inducing behaviors are discussed.
TopIntroduction
‘You got beat by a girl!’...is a direct insult to the female professor, sending the message that women are inferior to men. Telling an African American professor: ‘You are a credit to your race,’ is insulting because the message is that African Americans are not as smart as Whites to be professors. ‘Complimenting’ an Asian American [by saying]: ‘You speak excellent English,’ is offensive because it communicates that he or she is not a real American. These insults are called ‘microaggressions’ (Berk, 2017, p. 64.)
Psychiatrist and Harvard University Emeritus Professor Chester M. Pierce is credited as the originator of the term ‘microaggression’. In 1969, he created the word to describe the insults and dismissals he regularly witnessed non-black Americans inflict upon those of African American descent (Delpit, 2012; Lau & Williams, 2010; Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015; Sue, 2010; Treadwell, 2013). Microaggressions, according to Pierce, Carew, Pierce-Gonzalez, and Willis (1978), refer to the “everyday subtle, stunning, often automatic, and non-verbal exchanges which are ‘put downs’ of blacks by offenders. The offensive mechanisms used against blacks often are innocuous” (p. 66). Peggy Davis (1989), Professor of Law at New York University School of Law, defined microaggressions as “stunning, automatic acts of disregard that stem from unconscious attitudes of white superiority and constitute a verification of black inferiority’’ (p. 1576). Solórzano, Ceja, and Yosso (2000) refer to these as “subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, and/or visual) directed toward people of color, often automatically or unconsciously” (p. 60).
The meaning of this term has evolved since its inception. In 1973, MIT economist Dr. Mary Rowe extended the term to include similar backhanded remarks directed at women, referring to these acts as “apparently small events which are often ephemeral and hard-to-prove, events which are covert, often unintentional, frequently unrecognized by the perpetrator, which occur wherever people are perceived to be ‘different’” (2008, p. 2). Since then, the use of the word microaggression has expanded further to describe the unintentional, unpremeditated degradation of members of any socially marginalized group (Paludi, Denmark, Denmark, & Paludi, 2010). This includes, but is not limited to, groups experiencing societal exclusion in any capacity due to race, gender, social economic status (SES), disability, and/or sexual orientation. Psychologist and diversity training specialist Derald Wing Sue (2010) defines microaggressions as “the brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial, gender, and sexual orientation, and religious slights and insults to the target person or group” (p. 229). In sum, although explicit racism is now widely frowned upon – and thus, deemed a non-issue for most people – implicit biases remain prevalent. For this reason, the term ‘microaggression’ has evolved from being mainly concerned with racism to a focus on the subtle indignities regularly suffered by marginalized groups.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Macroaggressions: Are microaggressions (see definition below) “writ large” – more specifically, this term references the clear, obvious, stark and overwhelmingly, public displays of verbally aggressive slights. Perpetrators are usually unaware that they have engaged in an exchange that demeans the recipient of the communication.
Implicit Bias: Also known as implicit social cognition , implicit bias refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner. These biases, which encompass both favorable and unfavorable assessments, are activated involuntarily and without an individual’s awareness or intentional control. Residing deep in the subconscious, these biases are different from known biases that individuals may choose to conceal for the purposes of social and/or political correctness. Rather, implicit biases are not accessible through introspection.
Microinvalidations: Classified as a form of microaggressions that exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person or particular group of people.
Microinsults: Characterized by communications, conveying rudeness and insensitivity, that demean a person’s heritage or identity. These are often represented by subtle snubs, frequently unknown to the perpetrator, yet they clearly convey a hidden insulting message to the recipient.
Microassaults: Explicit denigrations, primarily characterized by verbal and/or nonverbal attacks. These attacks are meant to hurt the intended victim through name-calling, avoidant behavior, and other purposeful, discriminatory behavior.
Microinequities: Describe the pattern of being overlooked, under respected, and devalued because of one's race or gender. Microinequities are often unconsciously delivered as subtle snubs or dismissive looks, gestures, and tones. These exchanges are so pervasive and automatic in daily conversations and interactions that they are often dismissed and glossed over as being innocent and innocuous.
Critical Theory: A philosophical approach to culture, and especially to literature, that seeks to confront the social, historical, and ideological forces and structures that produce and constrain it. While traditional theory seeks to understand or explain society as a whole, critical theory is oriented toward critiquing and changing it. Critical theories aim to uncover the assumptions that keep people from developing a full understanding of how the world works.
Microaggressions: The brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, and environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial, gender, sexual-orientation, and religious slights and insults to the target person or group. Perpetrators are usually unaware that they have engaged in an exchange that demeans the recipient of the communication.
Microaffirmations: Apparently small acts, which are often ephemeral and hard-to-see, events that are public and private, often unconscious but very effective, which occur wherever people wish to help others to succeed. These include the tiny acts of opening doors to opportunity, gestures of inclusion and caring, graceful acts of listening, practicing generosity, consistently giving credit to others, and providing comfort and support when others are in distress.