Abstract
In this chapter, the authors propose a framework designed to enhance access to learning for English language learners (ELLs) in U.S. P-12 schools. This framework is grounded in the foundation of second language acquisition, incorporating universal design for learning and multimedia principles. They discuss how to use this proposed framework to create an inclusive and accessible learning environment. Specifically, they focus on access to digital instructional materials, content instruction, and assessments, all of which significantly impact the performance and attainment of ELLs in schools.
TopBackground
English language learners (ELLs) are defined as “a national-origin-minority student who is limited-English-proficient,” according to the Department of Education (Department of Education, 2020, para. 6). In the United States, English learner (EL), English language learner (ELL), and multilingual learner (MLL) are used in P-12 contexts to acknowledge that learners may speak more than one language; they may speak English as a new or second language other than their native language; they may not be born in the United States or they come from an environment where a language other than English has had a significant impact on their level of English language proficiency; they may have difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language (Horwitz, 2020; U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). For this chapter, we use the term English language learner to mean a culturally diverse group of students who share a common feature: They are learning English other than their native language while at the same time learning subject area content in P-12 public schools. In the following sections, we describe the demographics of English Language Learners in the U.S. public schools, types of English Language Learners, the achievement gap, and potential challenges facing ELLs.
Demographics of English Language Learners in the U.S. Public Schools
English language learners are a fast-growing group of learners in P-12 schools. According to the NCES (2023), the percentage of public school students in the United States who were ELLs increased overall between fall 2010 (4.5 million students) and fall 2020 (5.0 million students). Across the states in the United States, the percentage of ELLs enrolled in public schools varied significantly. For example, in fall 2020, ELLs represented 10.0 percent or more of the public school student population in 12 states and the District of Columbia. Three states with the highest percentage of ELLs were Texas (20.1 percent), California (17.7 percent), and New Mexico (16.0 percent). Additionally, 20 states identified at least 6.0 but less than 10. 0 percent of their students as ELLs, while 13 states identified at least 3.0 but less than 6.0 percent of their students as ELLs. Of all spoken home languages, Spanish was the most commonly reported home language of EL public school students in fall 2020, followed by Arabic, English, Chinese, Vietnamese, Portuguese, Russian, Haitian, Hmong, and Urdu.
Types of English Language Learners
ELLs bring various educational, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds to the classroom. In order to develop accessible learning environments for these diverse students, educators and practitioners must understand the characteristics they bring to the educational context. These characteristics have significant implications for the design of content instruction, assessments, and instructional practices. Within the extensive array of ELLs, researchers have identified three types of ELLs: long-term ELLs, recent arrivals with limited or interrupted formal schooling, and recent arrivals with adequate schooling (Freeman & Freeman, 2004). Each type of ELL exhibits unique characteristics and challenges, which are listed in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Variability of English language learners
| Type of English Language Learners | Characteristics and Challenges |
| Long-Term ELLs | ● Have attended schools in the United States for several years
● May no longer be classified as ELLs
● Speak conversational English proficiently
● Still struggle academically due to lack of academic language in content areas, for example, science, math, social studies |
| Recent Arrivals with Limited or Interrupted Formal Schooling | ● Often struggle in schools
● Speaks little English (little conversational language)
● Grades are low and poor tests due to interrupted prior schooling
● May have difficulty in content areas, for example, math, due to limited and interrupted schooling
● Have conversational proficiency in their native languages
● May lack content-area concepts |
| Recent Arrivals with Adequate Schooling | ● Speak a little more English than those in the second group.
● Have academic language and content knowledge in their native languages, which will help to transfer when their English develop |
Each category of ELLs presents its own set of challenges and needs. It is important to acknowledge that variability persists within each group due to the diverse linguistic, cultural, and academic backgrounds that ELLs bring into the classroom.
Key Terms in this Chapter
SUM: sum is the acronym of sensible, usable, and meaningful.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA): SLA involves the process through which individuals learn a language other than their native language.
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP): CALP refers to formal academic language used by teachers in the classroom or in schools. It is also called academic language.
Dual-Channel Processing (DCP): DCP assumes that human brains have separate pathways or channels and anatomical regions channels for processing visual and auditory information.
Learning Environment: Learning environment refers to the context where teaching and learning takes place. Its components include instructors, content, learners, space, and technology.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS): BICS refer to conversational language involving language skills needed in social situations, for example, school playground.
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT): CLT holds the assumption that working memory is limited in both duration and capacity.
Multimedia Principle (MP): Multimedia principle refers to Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia involving design and organization of multimedia presentations such as video, image, audio, and text.
Development Stages of Second Language Acquisition: Development stages of second language acquisition refers to the five stages that English language learners go through including preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency.
Information-Processing Theory (IPT): IPT explains the process of acquiring, processing, storing, and retrieving information from memory and guides how memory can be enhanced.
English Language Learners (ELLs): ELLs refers to a culturally diverse group of students who share a common feature: They are learning English other than their native language while at the same time learning subject area content in P-12 public schools.
Accessibility: Accessibility refers to practices that make learning sensible, usable, and meaningful.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL): UDL is a framework aimed at creating inclusive and accessible learning environments by minimizing barriers and accommodating the diverse needs of learners.
SUM: SUM is the acronym of Second language acquisition, universal design for learning, and multimedia principle, the theoretical perspectives that constitute the SUM Accessibility Framework design for addressing accessibility.