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Human-computer interaction (HCI) researchers have devoted substantial attention to examining the influence of social cues on user reactions to computing technology (cf. Hess, Fuller, & Matthew, 2005; Nass, Fogg, & Moon, 1996; Qiu & Benbasat, 2009; Reeves & Nass, 1996; Shneiderman, 1998; Turkle, 2003). Social cues, such as interactions through language, voice response, pictorial representation, and the fulfillment of a social role (e.g. personal assistant), signal the user that he or she is interacting with an independent, social, and intelligent entity (R. D. Johnson, Marakas, & Palmer, 2008). For example, Apple’s Siri manifests these cues when it uses natural language, humor, and other human-like responses. Over time, computing artifacts that were originally designed and viewed as sterile, lifeless, machines have become essential social partners as we complete daily tasks, creating a gap between what designers envision and how users perceive them (Ciborra, 2002; Dourish, 2001; Turkle, 2003).
The challenge facing designers is that although social cues can lead to more natural and effective interaction, greater trust, and increased purchase intentions, (cf. Moon, 2000; Qiu & Benbasat, 2009; Reeves & Nass, 1996), these same cues can lead users to develop a fundamental misunderstanding about the capabilities and limitations of computing technology (Shneiderman, 1998; Winograd & Flores, 1987). For example, critics have argued that users who ascribe social characteristics to a computer may allow it to “generate a final decision without questioning its actions” (R. D. Johnson, Marakas, & Palmer, 2006, p. 447). A recent stream of research by R.D. Johnson and colleagues (R. D. Johnson et al., 2006; R. D. Johnson, Marakas et al., 2008; R. D. Johnson, Veltri, & Hornik, 2008; Marakas, Johnson, & Palmer, 2000) has used attribution theory to explain how user personality and interface design affect how individuals come to ascribe responsibility for interactions and outcomes to the computer (see Table 1 for an overview).
As can be seen in this table, a number of factors have been investigated, but three factors have been consistently identified as key antecedents to the attributions made:
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Core Self-Evaluations (CORE): A personality trait that represents “fundamental, subconscious conclusions individuals reach about themselves” (Judge, Locke, Durham, & Kluger, 1998, p. 18);
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Computing Technology Continuum of Perspective (CP): An individual’s generalized beliefs about the social role and capabilities of computers (R. D. Johnson et al., 2006);
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Social Cues in the Interface: See Table 1.