Abstract
Antibiotics are certainly miracle drugs and have comprehensive usages in humans and livestock for the treatment of various bacterial diseases. However, inappropriate or misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic resistance happens when bacteria change in responding to the usage of these medicines. These bacteria can also be disposed of from animals to humans via contact between humans and animals directly, or through the food chain and the environment. Antibiotic resistance is a great threat to global humanity as it can prolong treatment in hospitals, increase medical costs, increase mortality, and burden the family. Residual antibiotics above the maximum residue limit (MRL) are harmful to human health and animals and need to be monitored. By increasing national policies, international declarations, agreements for enough chemical and analytical instrumental facilities, and above all, creating awareness about the harmful effect of resistance, the situation of antibiotics resistance can be improved.
TopHistory Of Antibiotics
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch microbiologist identified the first single-cell microorganism bacteria in the 1670s. Later, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch worked on tuberculosis mycobacteria in 1882. Rudolph Emmerich and Oscar Low discovered the antimicrobial drug for cholera and typhus in 1890 and Paul Ehrlich introduced the bacteria responsible for syphilis in 1909 (Lambrin et al., 2018). However, the first natural antibiotic known as Penicillin which was derived from Penicillium notatum in 1928 by Alexander Fleming was effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial infections (Patrick, 2013) (Table1). Within 14 years of discovery, in 1942 penicillin saved the life of Anne Sheafe Miller who was suffering from a streptococcal infection. The discovery of penicillin saved many more lives and inspired scientists to work on the discovery and development of new antibiotics. Later, many new and useful antibiotics of different classes were discovered from natural sources and synthesized in laboratories to save human lives. It has been an ongoing process of discovery until now.
Table 1. Name of some antibiotics, class, and year of discovery with the inventor
| Antibiotics | Class of Antibiotics | Inventor | Year of Discovery |
| Penicillin | Penicillins and penicillinase | Alexander Fleming | 1928 |
| Sulfonamides | Sulfonamides | Bayer’s research team | 1932 |
| Sulfamethazine | Sulfonamides | W. T Caldwell & co-workers | 1941 |
| Patulin | Polyketide | Birknshaw et al., | 1943 |
| Streptomycin | Aminoglycosides | A.I. Schatz | 1943 |
| Cephalosporin | β-lactam | Giuseppe Brotzu | 1948 |
| Chlortetracycline | Tetracycline | Benjamin Duggar | 1948 |
| Chloramphenicol | Antimicrobials | Mildred C. Rebstock | 1948 |
| Oxytetracycline | Tetracycline | Francis A. Hochstein | 1950 |
| Tetracycline | Tetracycline | Lloyd H. Conover | 1952 |
| Amoxicillin | β-lactam | Alexander Fleming | 1958 |
| Ciprofloxacin | Fluoroquinolones | Patented by WHO | 1987 |
Key Terms in this Chapter
Maximum Residue Limit (MRL): Means the maximum acceptable amount of residual antibiotics in edible tissues of animals set by national and international authorities BFSA, CODEX, EU, FAO and WHO that must maintain for global food safety.
Withdrawal Periods: Of antibiotics mean a fixed time for each antibiotic that does not remain in the edible tissues of animals.
Antibiotic Resistance: Occurs when effectiveness of antibiotics is invalid for bacterial infectious diseases and resistant bacteria are also multiplying cell division.
Adverse Effects: Of antibiotics mean a negative effect that can be observed after treating with antibiotics if the proper doses are not maintained.
Humanitarian Threat: Is also called humanitarian emergence which represents a critical threat to the health, safety, security, or wellbeing of a community usually over a large area.
Veterinary Drugs: Are antibiotics usually used in livestock for treating various types of bacterial diseases and enhancing animal growth.
Humanity: Means human well-being from natural or man-made disasters.