The chapter attempts to emphasize the development of executive functions in preschool, elementary school children, and adolescents. Executive functions refer to a wide range of higher cognitive processes that regulate behavior, emotion, and cognition and are generally conceptualized as an umbrella term. Moreover, the developmental trajectory of executive functions is noted to be greatly progressing in preschool and school-age children. Although they emerge during the toddler period, early childhood years underline a rapid increase in executive functions. In the chapter, the emphasis is on the developmental journey and maturations of executive function from preschool children to elementary school children and adolescents as well.
Top1. Introduction
Executive functions (EFs) can be construed as central or overarching self-regulatory abilities that orchestrate basic or domain-specific cognitive processes (e.g., language, attention, sensory input, motor output) to achieve goal-oriented problem-solving and behavior. There is a research consensus that the general term executive function (EF) is an umbrella construct defined as the control, supervisory, or self-regulatory functions that organize and direct all cognitive activity, emotional response, and overt behavior. In general, EFs are used to refer to a wide range of higher cognitive processes that regulate behavior, emotion, and cognition (Stern, Pollak, Bonne, Malik, & Maeir, 2016). In specific, the essential skills that support the intentional use of attention and enable goal-driven behavior are known as executive functions (EFs). They are top-down mental processes that permit goal-directed action in addition to adaptive reactions to novel or demanding situations and unfamiliar activities. These functions occur early in development and form the basis for the emergence of complex EFs, such as problem-solving, planning-programming, organization, reasoning, emotional self-regulation, and abstract thinking (Malloy-Diniz, Miranda, & Grassi-Oliveira, 2017). Furthermore, they can manage people's social interactions, and they are crucial for the efficient running of daily activities because a lot of the challenges that can arise in these behaviors are caused by deficiencies in EFs (Christofori, Cohen-Zimerman, Grafman, 2019).
Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, Howerter, & Wager, (2000), claim that the basic EFs are working memory (WM), cognitive flexibility (CF), and inhibitory control (IC). According to the researchers they are three distinct but linked components of EFs. WM is the capacity to preserve, update, and monitor information and to manipulate it cognitively. Therefore, WM is crucial for goal-directed planning, action, and attention. IC or inhibition describes the ability to resist a first inclination and think before acting. It is needed to control impulses and ignore distracting stimuli to stay focused. The capacity to switch between tasks or mental states and adapt to shifting priorities or demands is known as cognitive flexibility (CF) (Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007).
Reznick, Morrow, Goldman, and Snyder (2004), highlight that EF first manifests itself in the first year of life. Between the ages of three and six, EF experiences rapid development. Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend EF's nature before starting school. The development of a child's EFs is essential to their general neuropsychological functioning as well as to their cognitive, behavioral, and social-emotional growth. EFs emerge in early childhood and continue to develop over childhood and adolescence until early adulthood (Huizinga, Dolan, & Van der Molen, 2006). This long period of development is related to the maturation of the prefrontal cortex where the neural correlates are found (Diamond, 2012). This area undergoes one of the longest periods of development (Diamond, & Lee, 2011).
The development of the prefrontal cortex is closely linked to improvements in school-age children's EF (Doebel, 2020; Hodel, 2018). They undergo a period of development that begins in early childhood and lasts into early adulthood due to the development of the prefrontal cortex. This maturation appears to slow down in adolescents while accelerating in school-age children. But from the teenage years through the early twenties, it remains stable. Inhibition is the first to emerge in this developmental pathway, followed by more synthetic skills such as planning and problem-solving. On the other hand, WM seems to develop between the ages of 7-9 years. In parallel, middle-aged children are characterized by increased WM capacity and attention skills, faster and more efficient cognitive functions, and a variety of cognitive strategies. Additionally, information processing has been shown to develop rapidly from 3 to 5 years of age, with significant improvements observed in 9- and 10-year-olds (Craig et al., 2017).