Abstract
There is relatively little empirical research into the supernatural enforcement of an agreement between two parties through the swearing of ritual oaths before a deity that belongs to the African traditional religion cosmology. An emerging but vibrant body of qualitative work has explored different aspects of ritual oath-taking as a method of control used by certain traffickers to keep their victims in perpetual bondage. Employing the epistemological sources of tradition, reason, experience, and community's interpenetration and interpretation, this study demonstrates that traffickers are simply utilizing commonly held beliefs and practices within ATR to exploit their victims and encourage human trafficking. Findings reveal that despite the current trends toward civilization, globalism, and modernity, the role of the spiritual realm in human affairs (human trafficking) bound with the high place given to ritual and symbolism remains critical in trafficking enterprise in the African worldview, regardless of the religious affiliation.
TopIntroduction
Human trafficking is a crime, as well as a gross violation of human rights. It alludes to the procedure through which human beings are recruited, placed and maintained through deception, and/or the abuse of power or position of vulnerability, for the purpose of exploitation for economic gain within a country and across borders (Lee, 2011). It is obvious that women and children are trafficked for various purposes, such as forced labour in factories, farms or private households, forced marriages and sexual exploitation among others. Some of the identified underlying causes of trafficking include inequalities within and between countries, a growing demand for cheap and disempowered labour and increasingly restrictive immigration policies. Violence, discrimination and poverty are considered to be amongst the factors, which also increase individual vulnerability to trafficking (Farrell, 2011). Recently, there has been a widespread acceptance of the need for a human rights-based approach to human trafficking, as human rights form a central core for this new understanding. The Global Report on Trafficking indicates that 79 percent of women and girls are the predominant victims of sexual exploitation form of human trafficking (Lee, 2011).
In contemporary times, especially in Africa, human trafficking discourse has featured prominently the contributions of African Traditional Religion (ATR) in giving support to the business of trafficking in persons. In recent times, the link between what is so called ‘Juju’ and the trafficking of human beings has featured in many trafficking cases, especially from Nigeria (Falola & Afolabi, 2007). Whilst there is scant existing research on such a link, it is a component of trafficking that has generated significant attention in human trafficking discourse focusing on trafficking from Nigeria in particular and Africa in general into other destination countries. Empirical data shows that while juju can be used in this context of trafficking, it is actually the use of traditional oath taking that is dominant. Both traditional oath taking rituals and juju are often used as a ‘control mechanism’ to keep victims of trafficking in bondage and at the mercy of their traffickers (Gbadamosi, 2006). Traditional oath- taking often occurs as part of the recruitment process of human trafficking as a contractual agreement between traffickers and their victims involving a myriad of rituals. This aspect of recruitment does not apply to all cases of trafficking but seems to have taken the process of trafficking to a different dimension (Ikeora, 2014).
The traditional oath taking rituals has been reported as being one of the powerful means, which is used to control human trafficking victims. It reaches to the depths of their psychological vulnerability, combined with other factors which render women and children vulnerable to being trafficked (Oba, 2008). As it is well known, most victims of trafficking are recruited from rural areas, with just a few of them taken from urban areas. It has been established that most of the victims of sex trafficking started to work for their traffickers in exchange for leaving sex trafficking themselves. Victims of trafficking are subject to a popular traditional oath taking rituals with a priest who is referred to as ‘juju priest’ before departure for their work abroad. Traditional oaths are part of a supernatural ritual, which plays an important role in African customary practices. The role of the traditional oath is complex and needs to be understood in the context of African traditional beliefs instead of some sort of exotic practice (Oraegbunam, 2009). Some traffickers exploit this tradition and use it as a means of silencing their victims.
Traditional beliefs, values and morals are woven into daily life and customs through practices and rituals, which have been passed down from generation to generation-in Africa. Despite the widespread practice of Christianity and Islam in Africa, the traditional customs, laws and practices remain a strong foundation within communities.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Oath Taking: Ritual oaths and their accompanying use of juju are built on the fundamental theological view in ATR that God has appointed spiritual beings as rulers and judges to preside over the affairs of men. The worldview of the ancient Near East (ANE) shares incredible similarities with ATR’s cosmology and the practice of ritual oath taking. In her notable research on curses in the ANE, Kitz demonstrates how ritual oaths were used as points of contact between heaven and earth, as deities were expected to play a role in enforcing “the terms of an arrangement between two parties.” The use of spiritual power in the enforcement of oaths, a hypostasized curse, is nearly identical to observations on how juju is used.
African Traditional Religion: African Traditional Religion is simply the indigenous beliefs and practices of Africans. As a concept, African Traditional Religion (ATR) better explicates what seems like a complex element entwined in the human trafficking of today. For most Africans, religion is the fundamental, perhaps the most important, influence upon their lives, yet its essential principles are too often unfamiliar to foreigners who are often prone to misunderstanding the African worldview and its beliefs ( Awolalu, 1976 : 2). In Africa, religion is used in the singular here because, in spite of the aforementioned differences, there are many basic similarities in African’s religious systems ( Awolalu, 1976 : 2). These include the concept of God (although presented with different names) and the concept of divinities, spirits and/or ancestors. Although practiced and named differently across Africa, Awolalu (1976) contends that there is a noticeable ‘Africanness’ in its pattern of practice.
Juju: The term juju as practiced by African Traditional religious priests can be defined as “the utilization of supernatural forces to impress on the natural.” The juju priest performs a specific ritual in order to invoke this power. This ritual involves the collection of items from the woman, the slaughtering of animals, and the solemn vow to repay the debt owed for being transported to Europe or any destination. Above all, the women are also made to swear that they will not speak of this to anyone. In many cases, the use of juju within the ritual is also presented as a petition to the god for prosperity and success. Only later does its power become a source of fear, as she attempts to leave the horror of her situation.