Abstract
The main research objective of this chapter is to examine sustainable development strategies (SDSs) of urban centers of the Arctic Zone of Russia (AZRF). There are three specific purposes for this analysis: first, to evaluate the scope and focus of such strategies; second, to find out whether these strategies are efficient or not and whether they improve the situation in the particular city or not; third, to understand whether these policies are of short-term/single-issue character or they represent forward-looking/comprehensive strategies. The Arctic municipalities view building SDSs as an important policy priority for themselves. They have tried to create proper legal and institutional settings for the development and implementation of such strategies. They have made great strides in implementing some sustainability-related projects over the last 10 to 15 years. There was a clear shift from survival/reactive to capacity-building/proactive SDSs. Despite some residual problems and shortcomings, AZRF cities' SDSs evolve in a rather dynamic and positive way.
TopIntroduction
In the post-Soviet era, the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation (AZRF) experienced numerous challenges ranging from the disruption of traditional economic relations, division of labor between different industries and regions to environmental mess left by the Soviet extractive industries and military. Among the most recent challenges, global climate change should be noted. This phenomenon has rather contradictory implications for the AZRF. On the one hand, it creates greater opportunities to exploit oil, natural gas, and other mineral and biological resources as well as shipping lanes in the Arctic Ocean. In turn, this could be conducive for the revival and modernization of the AZRF industrial base and, hence, further development of the Arctic urban centers where the industrial potential is concentrated.
On the other hand, extracting natural resources and intensive exploitation of maritime routes will require labor migration into the AZRF. The effect of climate change is amplified in the AZRF urban centers, where the presence of population, natural resource, and transport infrastructure development and other human activities exert additional pressure on Arctic ecosystems. Promoting urban sustainability in the Arctic is critical because the fragility of the environment, economy, and population makes mistakes more costly and likely to have a lasting impact than they would in more resilient environments. Policy makers and corporations focused on maximizing profit margins are not paying sufficient attention to such sustainability concerns meaning that the continuation of current practices could do irreparable damage to the Arctic environment. The growing ethnic, religious and cultural diversity of the AZRF population challenges social cohesion of local communities and calls for new social strategies to harmonize inter-ethnic and inter-confessional relations in the region.
The main research objective of this study is to examine how sustainable development strategy (SDS) is being shaped and implemented by the AZRF industrialized centers. There are three specific purposes to this analysis: first, to evaluate the scope and focus of SDSs (including environmental programs) that are implemented by AZRF cities, such as Apatity, Arkhangelsk, Monchegorsk, Murmansk, Nickel, Norilsk, Salekhard, Severodvinsk, Vorkuta, and so forth; second, to find out whether these strategies are efficient or not and whether they improve the situation with regard to social well-being or not; and third, to understand whether these policies are of short-term/single-issue character or represent forward-looking strategies that are conducive to the sustainable socio-economic and environmental development of the northern urban areas.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Urban Planning: A part of urban development strategy. It is considered an interdisciplinary field that includes social, engineering and design sciences. Urban planning guides orderly development in urban and suburban areas. Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities, urban planning is also responsible for the planning and development of water use and resources, parks, and conserving areas of natural environmental significance.
Sustainable Development: The organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development can be classified as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations.
Paradiplomacy: A parallel diplomacy conducted by sub-state and non-state actors, including regions, municipalities, companies, NGOs, etc.
Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation: In accordance with the presidential decree no. 246 (May 2, 2014), the following northern territories are included into the AZRF: Murmanskaya Oblast, Nenetsky Autonomous District, Yamalo-Nenetsky Autonomous District, Chukotsky Autonomous District, City of Vorkuta (Republic of Komi), five districts of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Norilsk, Taimyr and Turukhansk municipalities of Kransnoyarsky Krai, cities of Arkhangelsk, Novodvinsk and Severodvinsk and three municipalities of Arkhangelskaya Oblast, archipelagos and islands in the Arctic Ocean that belong to Russia.
Climate Change: A change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather within the context of longer-term average conditions. Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities, such as greenhouse emission have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change, often referred to as global warming.
Arctic Council: A high-level intergovernmental forum which addresses issues faced by the Arctic governments and people living in the Arctic region, such as climate change, environment, fisheries, shipping, indigenous peoples, etc. Established in 1996 by the Canadian initiative. Includes eight Arctic nations (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, USA) as full-fledged members, permanent participants (mostly indigenous peoples’, environmental and scientific NGOs) and several observers.
Barents Euro-Arctic Council: Being established in 1993 by the Norwegian initiative, the forum for intergovernmental cooperation on issues concerning the Barents Region. The BEAC meets at Foreign Ministers level in the country of the Chair at the end of term of office. The Chair rotates every second year in the autumn, between Finland, Norway, Russia, and Sweden. BEAC has seven members: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and European Commission.