Toxicity Analysis of Different Types of Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials Used in Biomedical Applications

Introduction

Due to its amazing and unique features, two-dimensional nanomaterials have stimulated the interest of academic and industrial researchers since the initial isolation of graphene from graphite in 2004 (Chia, 2018). These layered materials have the potential to be used in a variety of applications, ranging from everyday items to water purification and biomedical applications (Fojtů, 2017). Since their positive application potential is still expanding, the degradation of such materials, their biocompatibility, and their effect on living creatures have begun to attract considerable attention. In short, the study of aspects such as biocompatibility, nanotoxicity, and biodistribution of each of them must be carried out. Graphene and its derivatives (Bazina, 2021; Cao, 2021; Chowdhury, 2014; Fahmi, 2017; Farahani, 2020; Li, 2014; Wen, 2015; Yang, 2013), transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) (Latiff, 2017; Teo, 2014), black phosphorus (Latiff, 2015; Wu, 2021), MXenes (Gu, 2021), exfoliated pnictogens (Chia, 2019), and other two-dimensional nanomaterials have all been described thus far. Transition metal dichalcogenides are less harmful than organic equivalents like graphene oxide and halogenated graphene so far (Teo, 2014). The greatest impediment to the commercialization of two-dimensional materials is their little-researched toxicity and the absence of studies defining their behavior under real-world environmental and physiological conditions, highlighting the critical need for more study in this area. As a result, it is critical to recognize the various qualities that may influence the material’s safety as well as the potential issues associated with its use to take advantage of the extraordinary properties it possesses. Currently, the most studied two-dimensional material concerning toxicity is graphene and its derivatives, which coincides with having been the first to be introduced more extensively (Bazina, 2021; Cao, 2021; Chowdhury, 2014; Fahmi, 2017; Farahani, 2020; Li, 2014; Wen, 2015; Yang, 2013). However, some other two-dimensional materials are being studied by different research groups (Chia, 2019; Gu, 2021; Latiff, 2015; Latiff, 2017; Teo, 2014; Wu, 2021), which has made it possible to carry out in vitro studies even in human cells (Bazina, 2021; Cao, 2021; Gu, 2021). A parallel effort is underway to better understand the biological and environmental interactions of synthetic nanosheets, both to enable biomedical advances and to ensure human health and safety in all sectors of application. Many two-dimensional materials are projected to undergo reactive dissolution processes, which will be crucial to understanding their behaviors and interpreting biological response data (Wang, 2016). Furthermore, because the elucidation and understanding of the physicochemical properties of this novel class of nanomaterials are still in their early stages, data on biocompatibility and nanotoxicity in vitro and in vivo is few and poorly understood (Kenry, 2016).