Abstract
This chapter reviews the high-tech tools for language instruction in autism that are currently on the market, focusing mostly on standalone apps and software programs designed for independent use. It looks at apps and computer programs that teach vocabulary, word categories, receptive and productive syntax, pragmatics, and basic reading comprehension. It also looks at programs designed to boost underlying skills like auditory processing, auditory attention, and integrative thinking. It then reviews the limitations of these programs in eliciting appropriate practice, providing appropriate feedback and covering the full range of linguistic skills and topics. The chapter highlights, in particular, the limitations of receptive language training and the need for active practice. It concludes with a discussion of the dearth of efficacy data for nearly all of the high-tech tools.
TopIntroduction
In the previous chapter, we reviewed the various in-person language interventions for autism, concluding with a discussion of some of their limitations. In this chapter, we look at whether higher-tech, software-based interventions might address some of the shortcomings of the in-person approaches—and thus serve as useful supplements to in-person therapy.
Software-based programs have several advantages over in-person therapies, particularly in the long term. They potentially offer:
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Unlimited hours of training
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Large stores of built-in drills and exemplars that may aid generalization
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Limitless patience and persistence in their automated responses
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Animation and rotation of images for greater clarity
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Replaying of prompts and modeled responses as needed
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Engaging sound and visual effects, including as reinforcements for correct responses and for progress through the program
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Regularity and predictability
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Cartoonish simulations of human faces and voices that may be less aversive and more engaging than actual faces and voices
Indeed, some research has found that individuals with autism often prefer interactions with computers to direct, face-to-face interactions with people and that they are able to learn language—specifically vocabulary—in such environments (Bosseler & Massaro, 2003; Chen & Bernard-Opitz, 1993; Heimann et al., 1995; Moore & Calvert, 2000). While the ultimate goal is for autistic individuals to be able to function in the real world, mastering as much language as possible is crucial to that end, and computerized therapies may help accelerate this process.
As far as the child’s human therapists and supervisors go, software programs also offer the possibility of automated data collection and progress tracking, potentially a welcome alternative to the meticulous hand-recording of data involved in in-person ABA therapy. Software programs also potentially allow fine-tuned adjustments to particular users—a customization that can be automated, therapist-controlled, or some combination of both. The program itself—or the therapist—can potentially decide where the child should start, what level of challenge he should be presented with, which particular visual and verbal prompts he should encounter, and when he should advance to the next level.
Over the last three decades a growing number of educational software programs and apps have been developed—computer-based and tablet-based—to assist autistic students and their teachers with the process of language instruction. Most of these programs offer most of the above features: hours of practice, predictable environments, a break from face-to-face interactions, animated prompts and demonstrations, engaging sound and visual effects for rewards, data tracking, and customizable settings.
Beyond their customization protocols, however, not all of these software programs are fully automated. Some of them require or strongly encourage teachers/therapists to play an active role during training sessions. Since this, of course, limits some of the advantages of automation, we will be mostly focusing on those programs or program components that are fully automated. First, however, we will look at “hybrid” programs—those that involve a combination of software-based and therapist-based training.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Auxiliary Verbs: Verbs that co-occur with other verbs and serve primarily a grammatical purpose—e.g., to express tense or negation. Auxiliary verbs include many instances of “is,” do”/“did”/“does,” “will,” and “have”/“has.” Auxiliary verbs are difficult to teach in isolation and are often neglected in computerized instruction.
Auditory Working Memory: The component of working memory involved in keeping track of what one hears.
Hybrid Programs: Programs in which a therapist plays an active role, for example in assessing the child’s response to an automated prompt and in giving the child feedback.
Receptive Grammar: The ability to comprehend particular grammatical structures. Receptive grammar does not require the same attention to detail that expressive grammar requires, and so mastery of receptive grammar is insufficient for mastery of expressive grammar.
Expressive Grammar: Actively produced grammatical constructions. Expressive grammar skills involve the ability to put words in the correct order with the correct endings.
Function Words: Words that serve primarily a grammatical rather than a semantic function. Function words include articles (“a” and “the”), and connecting words like “and,” “but,” and “if.” The more basic AAC tools do not include them.
Conversational Pragmatics: The skills involved in back-and-forth conversation: conversational initiations, turn-taking, identifying the current topic and staying on topic, and taking into account your interlocutors’ interests and knowledge base.
Automated Programs: Programs that do not require in-the-moment supervision by teachers or therapists.
Word Categories and Semantics: The broader categories denoted by words, as opposed to the specific items they refer to in specific contexts. Fully understanding the meanings of “apple” and “furniture,” for example, entails understanding the full range of objects these words can refer to.