Analysis of Radicalisation Prevention Policies From the Perspective of Educommunication in Mediterranean Countries

Introduction

The fight against violent radicalisation in Europe has been enshrined in official documents since 2005, with updates in 2008 and 2014 (Ruiz-Díaz, 2017) and 2020 (European Commission, 2020). In turn, European countries have developed measures to facilitate the integration of immigrant populations, refugees, and asylum seekers (Eurydice, 2019). This objective is in line with the aim of the Council of Europe, which has among its original purposes to foster European identity to achieve greater unity among states and protect fundamental freedoms and human rights (Council of Europe, 1949). Europe faces major challenges. Lack of trust in democratic processes, political detachment of citizens, lack of intercultural dialogue in culturally diverse societies and the rise of violent extremism are some of the most relevant threats to the values of freedom, citizenship and tolerance found in Europe.

A high point was the attacks of September 11 2001. Since then, the terrorist threat has been perceived as dangerous in Europe. Moreover, Europe has become a place of radicalisation and recruitment, where the number of radicalised individuals has increased. Their profile is heterogeneous. However, some common characteristics can be traced: Islamic religion and culture, a fragile socio-economic situation, and a lack of cultural belonging (Municio, 2017; Troian et al., 2019). Various factors are intertwined in the radicalisation process, both personal and structural, such as the socio-economic and cultural crisis, the need to belong in a disadvantaged environment that lacks empathy for their situation or the limited possibilities for the future (Coolsaet, 2019). In this regard, we turn again to the French example. For Kepel (2016), radicalisation results from the failure of integration policies that have led to residential segregation, employment difficulties, social and political marginalisation and ultimately, the withdrawal of the Muslim community into itself. The propaganda of radical Salafist groups employing a fundamentally religious logic has taken its toll on these second or third generations of European citizens who often find themselves stigmatised and rejected and yearn to belong to an accepting group (Lahnait, 2018). Thus, grievance or the perception of an unjust situation strengthens feelings of empathy with the attacks and has led to self-marginalisation practices. However, Roy (2017), with a cross-cutting approach, emphasises European jihadists' affinity with the disaffected and radical youth culture in which religious motivation is irrelevant since many do not know or understand Islam in depth. According to Aly et al. (2015), radicalisation is a complex phenomenon that requires cross-cutting and comprehensive prevention measures.

The attacks have provoked a strong social and media shock and a threat to traditional European values. Most attacks have been perpetrated by so-called “domestic fighters” from endogenous jihadism or “homegrown”. They are primarily European citizens belonging to the second or third generation of Muslim immigrants born and raised in Europe (Municio, 2017). At the same time, there has been a growing suspicion of Muslim immigration among the indigenous population (Bayrakli, & Hafez, 2020; Cesari, 2013). The attacks in Paris in November 2015 led to a meeting of European education ministers and the signing of the 'Paris Declaration' (Eurydice, 2016). This document sets out common objectives and policies favouring integration, social cohesion, and the prevention of radicalisation (Eurydice, 2019). Education systems in democratic societies face challenges related to cultural integration due, among other causes, to the number of international students enrolled in compulsory education (Trujillo & Moyano, 2008). In this regard, it is desirable to prevent some schools from becoming ghettos for certain ethnic groups. These situations can have harmful effects, become risk factors for radicalisation (Verkuyten, 2018), and generate unwanted negative side effects (Jerome et al., 2019).