Abstract
This chapter discusses the phenomenon of female radicalization based on a case study of the Islamic State. The goal of this chapter is to explore the connection and, possibly, the correlation between the uneven and inconsistent security context and the transformation of gender norms and deeply-rooted gendered segregation inside a jihadist organization through qualitative desk research. Using aspects of securitization theory and a human security paradigm, the research elaborates on the changing politico-military tendencies targeting the Islamic State since the declaration of the War on Terror, the dynamics of changing the strictly domestic role of women inside ISIS, the roles performed by female recruits in the organization, the threat they pose as participants of military jihad, and the propensity of existing counterterrorism measures to ignore the significance of female terrorists. Finally, with proper arguments, the chapter argues that there is a need for implementing a gendered approach to designing case-appropriate counterterrorism strategies.
TopIntroduction
This study aims to explore the phenomenon of female radicalization. Commonly, a radical is somebody whose beliefs and views differ from that of generally accepted social norms and who thrives to change those norms (Merriam-Webster, n.d.), however, there is not a generally agreed-upon definition for the term “radicalization”. Depending on the context, radicalization can have a positive and a negative meaning. In this paper, the term radicalization will refer to ‘a gradual process whereby individuals are socialized into extreme beliefs that are articulated in nonviolent and/or violent acts’ (Shapiro & Maras, 2018, p. 1). Radicalization itself is not the same as violent extremism or terrorism but the process of radicalization can be understood as a precondition of and evolution toward both. Borum (2003, pp. 7-10) further elaborates on this by suggesting a Four-Stage Model of the Terrorist Mindset to explain that it is a systematic and intentional process of change directed by facilitators (recruiters).
The female radicalization phenomenon has not emerged recently, nevertheless examining a gendered dimension of radicalization remains a sensitive topic to this day. The widely accepted gender stereotypes of women describe females as weak sex, nurturing, and gentle creatures who are seen as victims “lured” by terrorist organizations. Consequently, in many of the academic works describing, exploring, and explaining a phenomenon of female radicalization, the motivational factors of female fighters of radical groups and organizations are mostly that of a personal, private character, and seldom political. However, whether or not we accept violence as a resource that can be used by women does not change the fact that female radicalization stands firmly on the international policy agenda. The increasing number of women being socialized into the ideology of the Islamic State (ISIS) has become an alarming concern and threat to international security since the emergence of the organization from Al-Qaeda in 2013.
Islamic State (ISIS) did not follow in the footsteps of its predecessor organization immediately. In the early stages of its existence, ISIS stood strong on gender segregation and traditional domestic roles of female Muslims. Women's engagement in armed conflicts was brought up later, in a 10,000-word manifesto released by ISIS's all-female al-Khansa Brigade, where among other roles that female Muslims were permitted to play in Islamic State, under strictly defined circumstances and a certain defensive context, women could engage in military jihad (Winter C., 2018). Following the manifesto, messages of encouragement to take up arms and join combat when Daesh is facing a lack of manpower against its enemies echoed and was further elaborated in other IS documents and publications, and already in 2017, Islamic State, at the edge of collapsing, decided that women’s participation in jihad was obligatory (Khalil, 2019, pp. 9-10). The 2015 ICCT Background Note, focused on the European Union geographical area, states that females compromise 18% of the total number of IS fighters (Bakker & Leede, 2015, p. 1). According to the ICSR 2018 report, the total number of foreign affiliates in Iraq and Syria is between 37,497-41,490, out of which 13% are women (Cook & Vale, 2018, p. 1). The 2021 United Nations article states that among almost 62,000 residents of the Al-Hol camp for displaced people in Syria, more than 80% are women and children (UN News, 2021).
This chapter starts with exploring the international and regional security agenda under which Daesh is securitized by international actors. Then, it analyzes how the uneven security context exposed the Islamic State to extreme pressure from its opponents and created incentives for the transformation of deeply-rooted gender segregation inside the jihadist terrorist organization. Next, the study observes the conversion of the existing norms and roles of women inside ISIS in the face of female radicalization. And last but not least, the paper argues that there is a lack of gender-oriented approaches to implementing counter-terrorism strategies.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Radicalization: The process by which an individual or a group comes to adopt increasingly radical views in opposition to a political, social, or religious status quo.
Terrorism: the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders.
Women, Gender, and Terrorism: Explores women's relationship with terrorism, with a keen eye on the political, gender, racial, and cultural dynamics of the contemporary world.
Violent Extremism: A form of extremism that condones and enacts violence with ideological or deliberate intent, such as religious or political violence.