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Adults often turn to higher education for new knowledge and skills for application in life and at work. Their pragmatic motivations to pursue a degree typically relate to personal enrichment, life improvement for themselves and their families, career progression through upskilling, or transition to a new career through reskilling (Horn, 2021; Rose et al., 2024). A new degree can open pathways and opportunities for adult or nontraditional students; however, their needs differ from traditional ones.
Often described as 25 years or older, adult students also include those without a traditional high school diploma or with full-time employment, part-time student status, dependents, single caregiving responsibilities, or delayed enrollment in higher education (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2014, 2015). They juggle multiple roles and competing responsibilities among the family, workplace, and community (Ross-Gordon, 2011). They also bring a breadth and depth of experience to their student role (Knowles, 1973). Yet, higher education institutions often neglect adult students (Chen, 2017), who merit additional research and support in pursuing higher education.
Adult educators frequently rely on the work of Malcom Knowles (1973, 1980), who pioneered andragogy as the art and science of teaching adults. Andragogy recognizes the distinct needs of adult learners to focus on practical knowledge applicable to life and work through self-directed learning and active involvement in the learning process. Knowles’ (1980) assumptions and processes about how adults learn have significantly shaped practices in adult education, but some have questioned whether andragogy adequately considers cultural, economic, and historical influences on learning (Dantus, 2021; Duff, 2019). In response, adult educators have advocated for adaptive teaching strategies that promote self-determined learning and respect cultural contexts (Stroschen, 2009; Taylor et al., 2012). In higher education, adult educators often integrate andragogical principles and practices into program development and instructional design (Jesson & Newman, 2020; McCollin, 1998), continuing the influence of andragogy to this day.
Distance education or online learning offers one solution for busy adult students. In today’s technological age, adult education cannot be discussed without technology (Parker, 2021). The NCES (2023) defined distance education as providing flexible learning opportunities using technology for instructional delivery and synchronous or asynchronous interaction between the student and instructor. Adult students often seek distance education and flexible programs, relying on technology for online access and interactions (NCES, 2023; Ross-Gordon, 2011). Online degree completion presents challenges, however, as adult students struggle to simultaneously learn new technologies, new study skills, and new content (Henson, 2014). The use of technology can cause anxiety in adult students (Erisman & Steele, 2012), and low efficacy with technology adversely affects their course and program outcomes (Henson, 2014). For adult students seeking higher education, technology offers a mix of access and challenges.