Abstract
Tourism activities contribute to the economic development of countries through the transformation of values such as nature, culture, and history into attractive elements for tourists. However, the continuous growth of the tourism industry brings along numerous environmental and social issues, alongside the economic benefits it generates. To the extent that the tourism industry can perceive a country's culture, natural resources, historical sites, people, and even animals as commodities that can be used for capital gain. In this context, the study primarily evaluates the commodification of human and non-human labor in this industry. Subsequently, all tourism activities that exploit migrants, women, children, and animals, subjecting them to poor working conditions or sexual objectification, are examined through a cause-and-effect relationship. Regarding the concept of labor, a critical assessment is conducted based on the social reality where women, children, and animals are potentially seen as commodities in the tourism sector, and the topic is extensively addressed with examples.
TopIntroduction
The tourism industry is one of the leading sectors contributing to countries' economic development and growth. Moreover, its significant impact on employment opportunities for millions of people worldwide and its influence on national incomes are of great importance. (Mak, 2003). The industry has experienced rapid expansion, particularly in recent years, due to globalization and increased competition. This growth has resulted in the dominance of large-scale enterprises, requiring investments and investors, thereby centralizing control of the sector in the hands of major travel agencies, hotel chains, and other tourism-related businesses. On the other hand, capitalism constitutes an economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and a free-market economy. The relationship between these two concepts is exemplified in how the tourism industry functions within the capitalist economic structure and how labor is commodified in the process. Consequently, the tourism sector is directly associated with capitalism.
Capitalism is a structure that forms the foundation of modern economic systems, characterized by a free-market economy and private ownership (Amable, 2003). One of the most prominent concepts within the capitalist system is commodification. The term commodification refers to the transformation of goods, human labor, or any other value into objects that can be bought and sold (Kosoy& Corbera, 2010; Young & Markham, 2020). In this process, labor or value is perceived and marketed as a tradable commodity. The owner of the labor or value can offer it as a purchasable asset. Commodification involves converting something into tangible or economic value, making it marketable, but it also raises ethical and social considerations.
The commodification of labor implies viewing workers as a service or commodity that can be bought and sold in exchange for wages. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in capitalist economic systems and can lead to the exploitation of labor and people solely for profit-driven purposes. In this system, capital owners purchase human labor, which plays a significant role among the factors of production. Therefore, human labor is viewed as a commodity within capitalism. This implies that the value of labor is determined by market conditions in a competitive marketplace. As a result, the system creates an environment where the labor of individuals or animals is evaluated and compelled to compete. Furthermore, the commodification of all forms of labor whether human or non-human animal, within the capitalist system, is an important issue to consider from the perspectives of social justice and moral responsibility.
In terms of social justice and moral responsibility, the commodification of human or non-human animal labor is a highly significant issue. The commodification of labor entails the transformation of work into commercial value and is commonly practiced in capitalist economies. However, this practice brings forth certain problems in terms of human rights, justice, and ethical values. When the labor of human or non-human animals is commodified, it creates an environment where an individual's work is limited to the production of goods or services (Thrift, 2006; Coulter, 2016). This situation can lead to the perception of humans or non-human animals solely as factors of production and reduce their value to the economic worth of what they produce. This jeopardizes the respect for the freedom, dignity, and rights of humans and non-human animals.
From a perspective of social justice, the commodification of labor can exacerbate inequalities (Leslie & Catungal, 2012). This is because it can violate the principle of justice that dictates workers should receive compensation proportional to the value they create. In some cases, it can reveal the exploitation of individuals or animals by employers and the presence of unfair working conditions. This generates social injustice and imbalance within society, negatively impacting social harmony. From an ethical responsibility standpoint, the commodification of labor can reduce the worth of individuals or animals to merely economic interests. Humans and non-human animals should not be defined solely by their ability to work or the economic value of what they produce. Everyone should be considered worthy of human rights and respect. The commodification of labor can neglect these ethical values and lead us to perceive individuals or animals as mere means to an end.
Key Terms in this Chapter
Child Labor: Child labor refers to the participation of children, usually with inadequate age and developmental levels, in work or job activities. This type of labor can occur under hazardous conditions that may harm children's physical and mental health. Often carried out for low wages or no pay at all, these tasks can restrict children's opportunities for education, play, and normal developmental activities.
Animal Labor: Animal labor refers to the situation where animals are employed in agriculture, transportation, entertainment, or other human activities. This labor generally aims to utilize the physical strength and abilities of animals. Examples of animal labor include using horses to pull plows in agriculture, employing camels for transportation, or having elephants perform in the entertainment industry.
Non-Human Animals: From a philosophical perspective, the term 'non-human animals' can reflect a notion that humans are different from and superior to other animals. However, modern ethical and philosophical debates have increasingly raised awareness about the potential emotions, consciousness, and rights of non-human animals. This perspective is emphasized by animal rights advocates, while also supporting the idea that humans should engage with their natural environment sustainably and respectfully.
Commodification: Commodification refers to the process of turning an intangible asset or concept into something that holds tangible value. This term is commonly used in fields like economics and sociology. In the context of an economy, commodification signifies the transformation of a good or service into a marketable product. A company or individual can accomplish this by producing a product, offering a service, and presenting it for sale or trade.
Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic and social system that is fundamentally based on principles of private ownership, free competition, and a market economy. In capitalism, the means of production, resources, and property are typically controlled by individuals or private enterprises. Economic activities and the production of goods and services often occur under conditions of free market, meaning they are determined by the dynamics of supply and demand.
Women Labor: Women's labor refers to the production, services, or work activities carried out by women. This labor can encompass a wide range of areas, from household chores to paid employment sectors. Women often play significant roles both in the paid labor market and within the family, contributing significantly to the functioning of society.