This chapter presents research based on evidence, where the way of favoring the promotion of thought and the opportunities for play as a learning resource is investigated. Twenty-four three-year-old children and one teacher participated in the study. The research is based on psychology and pedagogy's empirical contributions about the game and its implication with cognitive processes and learning. The implemented method consisted of direct observation, supported by video recordings in the classrooms and during playtime. Results revealed that the promotion of thought was scarce, and there were also few opportunities for playful learning. Thus, the most frequently encouraged thinking types were connections, explanations, self-questioning and inquiring, and thinking dispositions observed during play – such as being open, adventurous, curious, and willing to be intellectually careful. In sum, a proposal based on playful learning is designed to respond to the needs found to achieve the research goals.
TopIntroduction
Nowadays, in many early childhood education classrooms, playing has become a luxury where, more and more frequently, there is less time devoted to the game due to the increasing emphasis on the academic aspects and the evaluative processes of learning (Bartlett, 2011; Gray, 2011; Miller & Almon, 2009). It might be believed from the foregoing that formal educational aspects are necessary, and indeed they are, but playing does remain a necessity for children because it is a means by which they externalize their thinking (Salmon, 2015). In the same way, playing reveals how children understand and construct self-learning. Such statements are consistent with the multiple investigations that highlight the importance of play for the integral development of children –especially during childhood–, since it contributes to the promotion of both cognitive function and brain plasticity (Kramer & Erickson, 2007; Leisman et al., 2016; Spencer et al., 2011).
In addition to what is stated above, the game shows positive effects on the understanding of laterality, balance, and psychomotor and visual-motor coordination by children (Cuesta et al., 2016; Gil et al., 2008). Likewise, play helps children to express their ideas and feelings and understand those of others –an aspect that produces emotional satisfaction, enhances social and cooperative skills, and increases empathy (Ashiabi, 2007; Ostrosky & Meadan, 2010). Other notable benefits of the game assist with language development and thinking skills and dispositions (Bergen, 2002; Emfinger, 2009; Perkins, 2014; Salmon, 2015).
From a pedagogical perspective, play is considered one of the fundamental principles of early childhood education since it fosters active learning in children through movement, exploration, critical thinking, and problem-solving (Leisman et al., 2016; Spencer et al., 2011; Weisberg et al., 2016; Wood, 2009). So much so that various studies show that, when the game with movement problems is taken into account, the exploration and curiosity to find answers and solutions with different alternatives is favored, which constitutes a factor that stimulates both dispositions and low and high-order thinking skills (Salmon, 2015). Likewise, the construction of deep and long-term learning is facilitated. Examples of problem-based playing are the group experiences carried out in nursery schools located in countries such as Finland, Germany, or Japan, where game-based teaching approaches are used, and whose research results show that students achieve better academic performance than their peers who are in schools of exclusively-academic orientation (Almon & Miller, 2009).
On the other hand, the scientific evidence in the international context reveals that the play opportunities offered to children are frequently determined by the perceptions of adults about the role of play –that latter being ‘kidnapped’ to through redefinition and limitation by parents and teachers (Gelormino & Patterson, 2016; Payá, 2008). So much so that the excessive emphasis on standardized tests and the attempt to continuously monitor, measure, and evaluate learning has led teachers to use direct instruction to a greater extent and to give students less time to explore and play (Almon & Miller, 2009; Bartlett, 2011; Gray, 2011; Vendrel et al., 2019). Thus, these days, children spend more time learning literacy and math activities than learning through play, exploration, and the exercising of their bodies (Miller & Almon, 2009).
Thus, taking as necessary referents to Hirsh-Pasek and Golinkoff (2009), Lillard et al. (2013), Vygotsky (1978), and Wood (2009), in this study, a theoretical review about play and learning in early childhood education is presented. Similarly, authors such as Hyvonen (2008), Kangas (2010), Liu et al. (2017), Mardell et al. (2016), Rice (2009), and Zosh et al. (2017) are taken as a reference for the writing of the approach based on Playful Learning. Regarding the theoretical arguments relevant to thinking dispositions for learning, the authors of reference considered are Costa and Kallick (2014), Salmon (2015), and Tishman et al. (1997).