Abstract
Extensive research has examined the role and effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) throughout the lifespan. High associations are evident between ACEs and incarceration, as incarceration in the household affects children, and incarcerated individuals frequently have a high number of ACEs. Variables such as substance use, physical and mental health, gender differences, and risk factors for reoffending also have indicated a connection with ACEs and incarceration. While research findings have highlighted ACEs influence on health and wellness, current studies are beginning to examine the variables of resiliency, protective factors, and intervention strategies and their role in mitigating ACEs. The purpose of this chapter is to examine ACEs, the subsequent connections to incarceration and substance use, and the mitigating effects of resiliency and positive childhood experiences with incarcerations and families.
TopIntroduction
The following chapter provides a focused review of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) related to the topic of incarceration. In the first half of the chapter, the authors take the perspective that relationships exist between ACEs and multiple other variables, including incarceration, risks associated with reoffending, physical and mental health, and school-related academic and behavioral problems. Special attention is given to substance use and gender differences, and the nature of their connection to ACEs.
The second half of the chapter reports on a collection of protective factors and targeted approaches for building resilience in youth. The ability of Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs) to compensate for the negative effects of ACEs on health, including adult mental health, is explored. The thrust of this portion of the chapter is about approaches and strategies for strengthening resilience and protective factors in order to lessen the odds of incarceration for those who have exposure to multiple ACEs. Several clinical interventions and detailed school-based, trauma-sensitive interventions are examined along with a compelling case for school-based trauma-informed care.
The chapter aims to meet the following objectives:
- 1.
To report specific relationships between ACEs and incarceration consistently documented in the substantive body of ACEs research.
- 2.
To report the findings of other related constructs (substance use, physical and mental health, gender differences, risk factors for reoffending) that also share a connection with ACEs and incarceration.
- 3.
To present a collection of determinants of resiliency, protective factors, and intervention strategies for use with families impacted by incarceration.
TopBackground
What Are ACEs?
The term ACEs originated from research by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) and Kaiser Permanente published in 1998 (Graf et al., 2021). Their findings were the result of two large-scale data collection waves from 1995 to 1997, with an ongoing longitudinal study of data collection targeting various health factors of the original participants. Analysis of the CDC Kaiser-Permanente study uncovered the socio-behavioral factors centered on three key categories of adversity that affected children: abuse (psychological, physical, and sexual), neglect (emotional and physical), and household dysfunction (substance abuse, parental separation/divorce, mental illness, maternal abuse, and criminal behavior). Since this original publication, researchers have continued to evaluate the phenomena and better understand how these early adverse experiences impact health and well-being in later life (CDC, 2021).
Researchers have found the influence on an individual varies depending on the extent and prevalence of ACEs exposure (Liu et al., 2021). For example, increased exposure to ACEs is connected to mental duress, smoking, and sleep disturbances (Zarse et al., 2019).
Key Terms in this Chapter
Criminogenic Risk Factors: Problem areas in an offender’s lifespan that may increase the chance of reoffending.
Age-Crime Curve: Developmental theory that observes an increase in criminal activity in adolescence and a decrease in criminal activity in adulthood.
Neuro-Immune Network Hypothesis: A heuristic framework first introduced by Nusslock and Miller in 2016 that explored the effect of stressors on the neural, cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and immune functioning related to child development.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL): Social and emotional processes that establish positive health and wellbeing.
Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs): Banked experiences in childhood that restore long-term positive outcomes by building trust, belonging, and relational connection.
Carceral Spaces: The prison environment experienced by incarcerated individuals.
Learned Helplessness: A sense of powerlessness in one who has experienced repetitive adversity or trauma.
Toxic Stress: Repetitive stressors that may wear down the body’s natural defenses causing lifelong mental and physical health problems.
Learned Resiliency: The ability to bounce back in one who has experienced repetitive adversity or trauma.