Lefevere’s (1992) rewriting theory argues that translation is a most recognisable form of rewriting; rewriting is also manipulation. When translating, a translator is actually rewriting an original text while being manipulated by three major factors within the target literary system: ideology, poetics and patronage. These three factors constitute the cultural and power constraints behind a translator’s rewriting, which will, to a large extent, determine the translation process, and finally shape a work of literature in the target culture, or manipulate the literature to function in the target society.
In the light of rewriting theory, ideology and poetics are two decisive factors that govern the production and reception of the translated work. Both of them play a decisive role in controlling the process of translation. They work in tandem to produce an impact upon the development of the literary system. Patronage, in Lefevere’s (1992, p.15) view, refers to “the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature”. It exercises authoritative power, imposing the dominant poetological and ideological standards on a translator by force. In other words, patronage represents a hypostatic factor that functions to control a translation process under the manipulation of ideology and poetics. Therefore, examining patronage control over Goldblatt’s translation of L&D will help better understand how he achieved the success he did as a literary translator, and provide insights into the production, reception, and dissemination of a translated work in general.
2.1 Paratext Defined
The term “paratext” was coined by French literary theorist Gerard Genette. Originally it was defined as representing a series of extra-textual materials that existed independent of, but were closely related to the literary text itself, such as paper, illustrations, fonts, author’s names, titles, prefaces, forewords, notes, that presented text to readers in a way that helped them accept and enjoy it (Genette, 1991, p. 261). As such, paratext mediates between the literary work and reader to provide the latter with an improved understanding of the former (Genette, 1997).
In this paper “paratext” involves all kinds of referential texts that support the production, reception and dissemination of the translated text, such as the original author’s and the literary cooperative’s interaction with the translator, the translator’s interviews and reflections, and reader feedback, as it were, a series of extra-textual productions made by more public and powerful intermediaries than the translator himself.
Translation theorists have recognised the significance of paratext materials, such as translation reviews, comments, and translator interviews regarding translation studies, because paratext is an important link that binds together the author, the translator, the publisher and the reader (Koçak, 2007, p. 171). Paratext also shares, enriches or even constructs the body text (Xiao, 2011, p. 17). Hence, paratext analysis in translation studies has become increasingly popular. For example, Watts (2000), Koş (2007) and Buendía (2013) all studied annotations as paratextual elements in translated texts; Frías (2012) analysed the role of orthotypographical style in the translation of children’s literature, arguing that orthotypographical translation could help young readers understand the body text. Pellatt (2014) discussed publisher and editor influences on target readership, and found both could manipulate a reader and translator through the layout and presence of paratextual elements.
I obtained some of my paratext materials (Table 1: Summary of paratext sources and titles) from reviews or critical essays about the translation of L&D, others from Mo Yan’s works published in newspapers, magazines, academic journals, lectures and talks delivered by Mo Yan and Goldblatt, in addition to reader feedback on the Amazon.com website. All paratext either directly constitutes or indirectly reflects the patronage power that significantly affects the translation and reception of the novel in the target culture.