An Overview of the Frameworks for Measuring the Digital Competencies of College Students: A European Perspective

Introduction

Improving micro competitiveness through the implementation of modern information technology, including new models of information architecture, databases and data warehouses, data protection, data management, computer communication, modern statistical software, and other IT tools (Domazet & Neogradi, 2018), represents a kind of leverage for a profitable business. It is important to understand the depth of changes in business processes and strategy, resulting from accelerated technological changes and digitalization. In doing so, it is equally critical to define new digital environments for entrepreneurship (Domazet, 2018).

The advancement in information technology created extensive space for digital entrepreneurship to evolve. Early technology adopters under Everett Rogers's diffusion of innovations theory (Diffusion of Innovations, by Everett Rogers (2003) use the possibilities provided by new technologies to create new opportunities and to start their entrepreneurial projects among other things. The fact that over 4.5 billion people are using the internet according to relevant sources (Internet World Stats, 2020) represents a substantial opportunity for those in possession of entrepreneurial potential and relevant entrepreneurial skills and competencies (Simović & Markovic, 2018).

Competences are a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes which are appropriate to the context. The digital competencies refer to the confident and critical usage of the full range of digital technologies for communication, information and basic problem-solving in all aspects of life (School Education Gateway, n.d.). Digital competencies are similar to digital literacy, which is a critical survival skill in our digital era (Eshet-Alkalai, 2004). It is important to emphasize the difference between digital skills and digital competencies. As per Hatlevik and Christophersen (2013) the digital skills focus on dealing with technical conditions whilst digital competencies are broader term, that emphasizes what kind of skills, understandings, and critical reflections students learn.

The digital competence represents one of eight key competences for lifelong learning as proposed by Reference Framework for lifelong learning (Official Journal of the European Union, 2006). Under this framework, there are some essential knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to be digitally competent. The knowledge includes the understanding of the functioning of main computer applications; of the risks of the internet and online communication; of the role of technologies in supporting creativity and innovation; of the validity and reliability of online information; of the legal and ethical principles behind the use of collaborative tools. The skills refer to the ability to manage information; the capacity to distinguish the virtual from the real world, the ability to use Internet-based services and to use technologies to support critical thinking, creativity, and innovation. The attitudes are associated with critical and reflective behavior towards information, responsible use and interest in engaging in online communities and networks (Ferrari, 2012).

The competencies in various fields can be acquired during the course of a person's education from an early age. As per Corbin (1993), competence is what a person knows and in terms of electronic services use they are preconditioned by the following elements: personal characteristics, basic skills, general knowledge, and special knowledge. The same author outlines that all of the four competence categories are impacted by formal education.

Entrepreneurship as competence is defined as the capacity to act upon opportunities and ideas in order to create social, cultural or financial value for others. Entrepreneurship competencies combine creativity, a sense of initiative, problem-solving, the ability to marshal resources, and financial and technological knowledge (OECD, 2018). The best way to develop entrepreneurship competencies is through entrepreneurship education and training which emphasizes entrepreneurship mindset and behavior. Available sources of data (OECD, 2018) suggest that a problem-based approach in teaching and assessment of entrepreneurship education is particularly successful. In regards to public policy, the following are the priorities in the process of strengthening the entrepreneurship competencies through the process of formal education: a progressive approach to entrepreneurship education, specialized entrepreneurship training, and support for teachers and strengthened business start-up support in vocational and higher education institutions (OECD, 2018).